Humanitarianism and Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Humanitarianism and Security - Essay Example This essay declares that humanitarianism operates in the best historical of emancipator ethics. It aspires to keep people alive, to expand their opportunities, and to provide them much control over their fates. It does that through various interventions, all defended on the basis that they improve the welfare and health of others who are too powerless and weak to help themselves. A variety of private and public actors contributes to humanitarian action, among them states, commercial outfits, religious bodies, philanthropies and various individuals. This paper makes a conclusion that humanitarian action they play a crucial function in saving lives across the globe. Humanitarianism as a doctrine ought to be man's duty to strive to promote the welfare of fellow mankind. In practicality, this has not been the case in many countries. Many academicians and other professional have questioned whether development and humanitarianism conventionally related. They have critic the ever increasingly involvement of government in humanitarian assistance and their motives. Humanitarian aid has been seen to be used as a political tool. However in recent years there has been hope in ‘new humanitarianism’. There exist a ‘new humanitarianism’ for the new century. ‘New humanitarianism’ is ‘principled,' ‘human rights focused and always politically sensitive. ‘New humanitarianism’ marks a break from the historical governance of humanitarian programs. It is a new concept in humanitarians a nd advocates for the system claims it can only get better with time.

How can Ebola affect us Essay Example for Free

How can Ebola affect us Essay Imagine being isolated from your own family and feeling unsure as to whether or not you will ever see them again. They do not want to come anywhere near you, for you are a threat to their health. The only visitors who come within 10 feet of you are strangers in full on protective gear. They do not want to expose the slightest bit of skin to you and you cannot see anything besides their eyes. The world fears what you are and no one wants to come close to you. You know death is near, and you are all alone. You can see the mountain of corpses outside the wiry mesh window of your facility, being burnt and thrown into mass graves, and you know that you will soon be joining them. This is the life of an Ebola victim.. In the year 1976, Ebola climbed out of its unknown hiding place, and caused the death of 280 out of the 318 people who got infected. That’s an 88% fatality rate. Fear gripped the victims, and tortured their minds. The people of Zaire waited outside clinics, churches and in their homes for a treatment of the horrible disease, but there was no cure. They were forced to watch people die, hoping that they would be saved from the violent death of the Ebola virus. From the year of 1976 till today, researchers have searched for origin and cure of the virus. Scientist have carried out numerous studies and investigations, but no one has been able to find the right explanations. There have been many others out breaks in the past but 2014/15’s outbreak has claimed more lives than all of these other outbreaks together, with a staggering 8386 death and counting. It has also spread between countries starting in Guinea then spreading across land borders to Sierra Leone calming 3,049 lives and Liberia causing 3,515 deaths and to to Nigeria causing 8 deaths. It is believed that the Ebola  virus may have initially been transmitted to humans from bats, and other forms of bush meat like monkeys ect.. fro m the jungles in central Africa, i know it must sount crazy to you to hear that some people eat monkeys but In some remote areas of Africa it is part of their culture and their way of life. In Africas Congo Basin, people eat an estimated five million tonnes of bush meat per year. The reason that bush meat is so deadly is because some animals mostly bats, can be a host to specific diseases without being harmed, were as us humans cannot carry these diseases without becoming infected. When a person contracts Ebola they will start to feel the symptoms within the next 2-21 days. The symptoms of Ebola are very distinctive and deadly. If you were to contract Ebola, your experience would be horrific you would start to get bad stomach pains, but it would just be passed off as a common bug. after that they would then start to amplify in pain until they would wake you up from your sleep, which would be followed by chronic vomiting. Anything you ate would come back up. These symptoms would continue for a few days then you would start to lose weight at an extreme rate. Chest pains would now accompany the stomach aches, by this time you would be very weak with virtually no food in your body due to the vomiting and your teeth would start to fall out while you would develop a bloody rash and you would die days later after horrific suffering. But those are just the side effects of what’s really happening in your body. Ebola attacks every organ and all of the tissue in the human body except the bones. You develop blood clots under the skin. Your organs turn to mush and the under layers of your skin die and liquefy; this is what causes the bloody bubbly rash. These things actually happen to Ebola patients every day. Ebola is a very contagious disease; this is why Ebola victims have to be kept contained in hospitals and treatment facilities. When it comes to transmission doctors take cleaning themselves after being in contact with an infected person very seriously. Ebola is transmitted through the passing of boldly fluids, which means if you get fluids from an infected person’s body onto your skin, you should be okay; but we as humans are constantly rubbing our eyes and eating with our hands so this means that we are still giving the Ebola parasite a chance to enter our body. At the moment there is no cure or vaccination for Ebola. Experiments however are taking place to find  a vaccination using antibodies of Ebola survivors. This is possible because like any other disease like small pocks and the chicken pox, one you have survived Ebola u become immune to it. Scientists are trying to figure out how to copy this into a vaccination. Most people in the uk think that they are completely safe from the disease, and at the moment yes they are. It is extremely unlikely that Ebola at the moment could reach the uk and spread like wildfire. However, every person in West Africa, Sierra Leone, Liberia ect that gets infected with Ebola provides it with an opportunity to grow and mutate, if not stopped it will eventually maybe in the next year, maybe in the next 10 years become air born. This means that even breathing near an Ebola patient will give u the disease. Once air born it will travel the world and could patiently kill a large percentage of the earth’s population. Including you. I hope now you can see why Ebola need stop be stopped. Thanks for listening

Spasticity Following Stroke: a Literature Review

Spasticity Following Stroke: a Literature Review ABBREVIATIONS UMN: UPPER MOTOR NEURON SPASM: SUPPORT PROGRAMME FOR ASSEMBLY OF DATABASE FOR SPASTICITY MEASUREMENT CNS: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PMS: PASSIVE MUSCLE STRETCHING TS: TRICEPS SURAE TA: TIBIALIS ANTERIOR ROM: RANGE OF MOTION INTRODUCTION: Spasticity is a major disabling symptom that most commonly arises after stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, some traumatic brain injuries and other central nervous system (CNS) lesion (Dietz and Sinkjaer 2007). Lesion of the cortico-fugal pathway along with the pyramidal tracts, at any level, like cortex, brainstem, internal capsule or spinal cord results in spasticity (Carr et al. 1995). The term spasticity was derived from the Greek word ‘spasticus’ meaning ‘to pull or to tug’ (Ghai et al. 2013). The definition of spasticity that has been formerly cited is that of Lance in 1980: ‘Spasticity is motor disorder characterised by a velocity dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes (muscle tone) with exaggerated tendon jerks, resulting from hyper-excitability of the stretch reflex, as one component of the upper motor neurone (UMN) syndrome.’(Brown 1994). Though this definition is useful for diagnosis, yet for the purpose of understan ding and managing the effects of inappropriate muscle actions after stroke, it is too restrictive (Bhakta 2000). Recently SPASM (Support Programme for Assembly of database for Spasticity Measurement) redefined spasticity as â€Å"disordered sensori-motor control, resulting from an UMN lesion, presenting as intermittent or sustained involuntary activation of muscles† (Mirbagheri et al. 2009). For the purpose of study the clinicians have divided the UMN syndrome into ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ effects. The characteristics of the negative features are loss of dexterity, weakness and easy fatigability on the other hand spasticity, increased tendon reflexes, extensor and flexor spasm, clonus etc are the features of positive UMN syndrome. The later definition of spasticity includes all the characteristics of positive UMN syndrome excluding its negative features and the biomechanical changes in the joints and soft tissues (Mirbagheri et al. 2009). The negati ve features of UMN syndrome are regarded to be more disabling than the positive features (Carr et al. 1995) but recent studies have showed that spasticity adds on to the impairment of function and to limitation of activity for the affected person (Bovend’Eerdt et al. 2008). The core feature of spasticity is increase in stretch reflex, manifested as hypertonus. Muscle tone is defined as the tension of a muscle due to involuntary contractions of its motor units; it is determined both by the passive elasticity of muscular tissues, the viscoelastic properties of the fibrillary proteins contained within each muscle fibre and by the active (though not continuous) contraction of muscle in response to the reaction of the nervous system (Grabowski and Tortora, 2003). Alternately active and inactive motor units help in maintaining normal tone in a muscle. Any imbalance in the input from central motor pathways like the cortico-reticulo-spinal and other descending pathways to the inter-neuronal circuit of spinal cord results in alteration in the involuntary contraction in a muscle. The main tract restricting the spinal reflex activity is the dorsal reticulospinal tract that runs along the lateral spino thalamic tract. It arises from the ventero medial reticular for mation which has less facilitatorty control over the cortical motor areas, thereby augmenting the inhibitory drive. The main excitatory pathway also arising in the brainstem is the medial reticulo spinal tract. Damage to these tracts give rise to a net loss of inhibitory control leading to increased alpha motor neurone excitability at the segmental cord level and subsequent increase in muscle tone. Several studies also claim that peripheral neural changes also contribute to the increased muscle tone. Muscle tone has two components, neural involving CNS and musculoskeletal, where muscles are involved (Barnes, M. P. et al. 2003). Both the components help in maintaining normal muscle tone. Normal tone is the slight amount of constant tension in the healthy muscles offering small resistance to displacement (Barnes, Michael P. and Johnson 2008). There is change in mechanical, visco-elastic properties of muscle fibres as a result of paresis and immobilisation after an UMN lesion. Activation of actin and myosin cross bridges also increases muscle tone (Lee et al, 2005). CNS and neural pathways maintain tone by overlapping actin and myosin filaments on muscle contraction. Insufficient contraction results in decreased muscle tone due to insufficient development of tension (Grabowski and Tortora 2003). Through the phasic and tonic stretch reflexes the muscle spindle plays an important role in regulating the muscle tone (Cameron-Tucker 1983). These muscle spindles can be adjusted in terms of their response to stretching. Spasticity is generated due to the over activity of the alpha motor neurons. Over activity occurs when the monosynaptic input via Ia afferent fibres and polysynaptic afferent input via the Golgi tendon organs and cutaneous receptors loose descending inhibition from the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia, which is relayed through the dorsal and medial reticulospinal and vestibulospinal tracts. Spinal inter-neurons are responsible for presynaptic and reciprocal inhibition of Ia fibres. Due to the loss of this inhibition inappropriate muscle co-contraction occur disabling voluntary limb movement (Bhakta 2000). The course of development of both cerebral and spinal spasticity after an insult is slow in humans, except for the cases of high brain stem lesion like traumatic brain injury where the increase in the tone is immediate (Carr et al. 1995). The time gap between the injury and appearance of spasticity may vary from days to months, depending upon the level of lesion (Ghai et al. 2013). The effect of spasticity ranges from mild muscle stiffness to severe, very painful and uncontrollable muscle spasm. If left untreated spasticity gives rise to many problems like pain, spasm, contracture and deformity leading to a loss of mobility and dexterity, problem in self hygiene, inability to wear orthotics hence resulting in decreased functioning, participation and low self esteem (Ghai et al. 2013). A multidisciplinary approach is required for the effective management of spasticity taking into consideration other variables that might affect treatment outcome. Aim of treatment should include prevention of abnormal limb or trunk posture and facilitation of movement in the context of functional activities (Bhakta 2000). Secondary to the neural changes there are dramatic changes of the structural and mechanical properties of the spastic muscle. A review conducted by Jared et al. concluded that the following changes occur in a spastic muscle: a) alteration of the size of muscle fibre and the type of fibre distribution; b) morphologically and biomechanically measured there is proliferation of extracellular matrix material; c) increased stiffness in the spastic cell muscle; d) compared to the normal muscle there is inferior mechanical properties of extra cellular matrix in the spastic muscle (Foran et al. 2005). As a management of spasticity the researchers have tried to alter the motor neuron excitability by many interventions like electrical stimulation (Bajd et al. 1985), pressure (Leone and Kukulka 1988), muscle tapping (Belanger et al. 1989), vibration (Gillies et al. 1969), cooling (Bell and Lehmann 1987), massage (Sullivan et al. 1991) and stretch (Kunkel et al. 1993, Avela et al. 1999). Among all of these, stretching has been intensively used as it is safe, economical and convenient (Tsai, KUEN-HORNG et al. 2001). Stretching is the process of applying tension to the soft tissue structures like muscle, tendon, and vascular, dermal, connective, neural tissues for elongation. Stretching can be applied mechanically (example- with dynamometer or an intelligent feedback control device) offering well controlled intervention and manually, which is difficult to standardise but represents clinical practice better. Stretching changes the viscoelastic, structural and excitatory property of the muscle. (Nielsen et al. 2007). However many neural as well as non neural property of stretching remains unclear. Stretching aims on decreasing muscle tone, maintain or increase soft tissue extensibility leading to improvement in function (Barnes, Michael P. and Johnson 2008). Lots of variation can be done while implementing stretching as an intervention. The amount of tension, the duration of the stretch, the velocity of stretch, the number of repetition can all be varied. LITERATURE REVIEW: A study was done by Harvey et al. in the year 2000 on the â€Å"Effects Of Four Weeks Of Daily Stretching On Ankle Mobility In Patients With Spinal Cord Injuries†. 14 recently injured subjects with paraplegia and quadriplegia were taken from two spinal injury units in Sydney, Australia. Their ankle was stretched into dorsiflexion, continuously for 30 minutes with a torque of 7.5 Nm for every weekday, for 4 consecutive weeks. The main outcome measure was measuring the torque angle in knee flexed and extended position. Measurements were taken pre-test and post test. Post test measurements were also taken thrice I,e, during the study (2nd week), just after the study (4th week) and one week after the study (5th week). Intervention was given by a custom made stretching device that is able to give ankle stretch. The baselines of all the subjects were same. The result showed that even after stretching for a longer time than usual there was no significant difference in the post test value in any of the three parameters from pre test. Hence the study concluded that there is no significant change in ankle mobility after 30 minutes of stretching for 4 weeks in SCI patients. The strength of the study is good, with random allocation, blinding of assessor, similar baseline of all the subjects but the intervention device needed to be more standardised. The study has a score of 8 on PEDro scale of assessment. A study by Tsai et al. 2001 examined the effect of a single session of prolonged muscle stretch (PMS) on the spastic muscle. 17 spastic hemiplegic patients were selected for the study and as an intervention PMS was given on the triceps surae (TS) muscles by standing on the tilt table with feet dorsiflexed for 30 minutes. Here the outcome measures were Modified Ashworth scale of the TS, the H/M ratio of TS and the F/M ratio of tibialis anterior (TA) and passive range of motion (ROM) of ankle dorsiflexion,. The measurements were taken pre test, post test and 45 minutes after the test. ROM was measured with a goniometer and electromiograph was used to perform nerve stimulation and reflex recording. The results showed non-significant difference in the Modified Ashworth scale, significant change in the ROM of ankle dorsiflexion, F/M ratio and H/M ratio. There was increase in the passive ROM of the ankle dorsiflexion post treatment compared to pre treatment, additionally PMS reduced motor neuron excitability of the TS and increased that of TA in the post treatment. There was no significant difference of result with in immediate post test and 45 minutes after post test. The study was well written but the sample size was too small. The age of the effected patients varied from 33 till 79 years which is a very wide range and the acuteness of the patients varied from 4.5 months post attack to 79.6 months post attack. These factors may cause a problem while generalising the results and the amount of stiffness may vary with the duration of illness. Bressel and McNair (2002) did a study to compare prolonged static stretch with cyclic stretching on ankle joint stiffness, torque relaxation and gait in stroke patients. 10 community dwelling people were randomly allocated into two groups; one of the groups received single session of static stretch and the other cyclic stretch of the calf muscle for 30 minutes. There was a washout period for one week and then the group interventions were exchanged. The interventions were given by an isokinetic dynamometer that measured the torques and the angles also. Before and after treatment the time taken to walk 10 m was taken and stiffness of the ankle joint was calculated from the slope of the torque and angle curves before and immediately after the treatments. Over the 30 minutes stretch the percentage of the decrease in peak passive torque was the torque relaxation achieved. Results showed that there was significant decrease in ankle stiffness in both the intervention but there was not much significant difference between the post test values of the two interventions. The amount of torque relaxation was 53% greater in static stretching than that of cyclic stretching. And the 10 m walk duration did not have any significant difference pre and post test. The sample size of the study was very small to generalise the results and the wash over period between the two sessions were of just one week. Since the prolonged effect of the stretching is unknown hence it can’t be commented that whether there was any residual effect of the previous session that may have affected the results of the second session. Nowhere in the study blinding was done hence there may be a chance of being bias from the assessor. The baselines of both the groups were not similar. A study by Yeh et al. (2005) compared the effectiveness of constant-torque prolonged muscle stretching (PMS) treatment in subjects with ankle hypertonia. The study design was a pre and post test analysis. 30 subjects suffering from hemiplegia and calf muscle hypertonia were given stretching device using a motor driven stretching device for 30 minutes in constant torque or constant angle mode. The main outcome measures were Modified Ashworth scale, passive range of motion and viscoelastic property of the planter flexors were measured pre and post treatment. Result showed significant improvement in all the measures, but the in the viscoelastic component the constant torque showed more evident changes compared to the constant angle measure. This study proved that there is significant reduction in spasticity after a single session of PMS. The methodology of the study was appropriate and the analysis of the data leading to the result was done well. the study also mention about the future scope of study by changing the mode of stretch from constant to intermittent. Neither the subjects, nor the assessor was blinded in the study, so the question of bias remains. A systemic review done by Bovend’Eerdt et al. (2008) was the first review done on the effects of stretching in spasticity. Studies were taken from databases like Medline, Cochrane library, CINHAL, Web of Science, PEDro and Alied and Complementary medicine for review. 10 RCTs and 11 clinical trials were assessed. Randomised control trails were assessed on PEDro scale for methodologic quality and the other clinical trials were assessed using data extraction form containing 13 items from CASP guidelines and CONSORT statement. The methodological qualities of the RCTs were low and there was a huge diversity on the methodology, intervention, population etc. Both manual and mechanical stretching was given. The review concludes as there is not much evidence on the basis of which the review can say if stretching on spasticity has its clinical benefit. A recent study by Gao et al. (2011) aims to investigate the changes occurring in biomechanical properties of the calf muscle–tendon unit after controlled ankle stretching in stroke survivors. Comparison was done between 10 stroke patients with ankle spasticity/contracture in one group and ten healthy subjects in the control group. 60 minute ankle stretching was given as an intervention to both the groups. Joint biomechanical properties like resistance torque, index of hysteresis and stiffness were evaluated pre- and post-intervention. Length of Achilles tendon was measured with ultrasonography. The force output of the triceps surae muscles was given in torque–angle relationship, by stimulating the calf muscles at a definite intensity across different ankle positions. The device used for intervention was an ankle stretching device with intelligent control (the velocity of stretching was inversely proportional to the joint resistance torque) was used. Pre test the stroke survivors showed significantly higher resistance torques and joint stiffness, which were to a large extent reduced after the stretching intervention, especially in dorsiflexion. Stretching also significantly improved the force production of the impaired calf muscles in stroke population under matched stimulations, along with the ankle ROM. The study interpreted that at the joint level, repeated stretching leads to increased passive ROM and decreased joint stiffness; at the muscle–tendon level, calf muscle force output improved. The study provided evidence of improvement in muscle tendon properties through stretching intervention. Apart from the small sample size the study was well written and the methodology was well described. DISCUSSION: Spasticity is a disabling and often painful condition that occur secondary to the UMN lesion that leads to hypertonicity, exaggerated reflexes, weakness of muscle and loss of dexterity. Spasticity has both neural and non neural components. Stretching is a very commonly used intervention used in clinical physiotherapy. But stretching and spasticity together is a very complicated concept. From the articles reviewed one can conclude that stretching does have a positive effect on spasticity, but its effect on the neural component of spasticity alone is yet not proved. In this study the stretching that has been described are mechanical stretches, but there are various other form of stretches given through splinting, plaster cast, weights which could not be discussed because of their low level of evidence. Many studies could not be included because there stretching was combined with strengthening, stimulation, passive motion etc. Even among the articles taken in this study there is heterog eneity in methodology of stretching, its duration, the type of stretch and even the outcome measures used. Inspite of being a component in the definition none of the articles investigated spasticity by using different velocities of displacement. Due to so much of diversity it is tough to comment on which mode of stretching is most beneficial for spasticity. To come down to a conclusion, future studies are needed to be done to find a standardised protocol of stretching for spasticity. In the future studies the outcome measure should be chosen carefully and intervention should be planed keeping the aim of the study in mind. CONCLUSION: The studies taken in this review shows a great diversity in respect to methodology, intervention, population and outcome measures. Though from the reviewed articles it can be said that stretching is effective for spasticity but there is need of good quality of studies to decide on a stretching protocol, its long term and short term effects and to come down to a conclusion as to which type of stretching is most effective in spasticity . TOTAL WORD COUNT IS 2978.

Death And Corruption In Hamlet Essay -- Corruption in Hamlet

Harold Blume said it best when he said, â€Å"Hamlet is deaths ambassador to us.† Throughout Hamlet, we have the images of death, decay, rottenness, and corruption pressed upon us. The imagery corresponds with the plot of the play perfectly, all culminating with the gravedigger scene. The corruption images illuminate the actions of the people in Claudius’ court, beginning with Claudius’ own actions. The beginning of the play lets us know that it is winter with Fransisco’s statement that it is â€Å"bitter cold† (1.1.6) This may be an allusion to death in itself – things are dead in winter. The guards speak of the ghost and we know right away that we have a supernatural theme, as well as a theme of death. In act 1 scene 2 we get the impression that King Hamlet has been gone for a while. Gertrude is already re-married and is happily out of mourning clothes. Gertrude even tells Hamlet, who is in full black mourning clothes, to cheer up. Good Hamlet, cast thy nightly colour off, And let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark. Do not for ever with thy vailed lids Seek for thy noble father in the dust: Thou know'st 'tis common; all that lives must die, Passing through nature to eternity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (1.2.68-73) Hamlet does not feel that it is time for him to shed his wretchedness just yet. The impression given is that it has been a long time scince the death of the old king and only Hamlet still clings to his memories and grief. After everyone leaves, however, we find out all the sordid details about the new King and Hamlet’s mother. Hamlet begins the rottenness imagery right away when he compares the world to â€Å"an unweeded garden that grows to seed; things rank and gross in nature posses it merely.† (1.2.135-6) He is utterly despondent and blames his mother and uncle for not feeling the way he does. He is the one who points out that the old King, his father, has not been dead long at all – only a month in fact. He rails over the fact that his mother could be so fickle, marrying again so soon. The affront is ground even more sharply into his frail sensibilities when she marries his father’s brother, his uncle. The fact that the two of them could be so jolly s o soon after the death of his father just staggers him. He predicts t... ...ferences to death are true references and not just imagery.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alexander died, Alexander was buried, Alexander returneth into dust; the dust is earth; of earth we make loam; and why of that loam, whereto he was converted, might they not stop a beer-barrel? Imperious Caesar, dead and turn'd to clay, Might stop a hole to keep the wind away:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (5.1.192-7) Hamlet is coming to terms with his own mortality and realizing the true physical destiny. He finds irony in the fact that a king could become a meal for a peasant, a seal for a beer-barrel, or a patch to keep wind out of a dwelling. Hamlet shows us that life is to be viewed without prejudice. It does no good to go about life with only your own interests in mind. He saw the rottenness and corruption that comes of that and it broke him. He loved his father and to see him so maligned was heartbreaking, especially coming from those who should have loved him most. That revelation shattered Hamlets ideal view of the world.

Amy Lowell by Marcia Dinneen Essay

Amy Lowell’s Life and Career Marcia B. Dinneen (http://www. english. illinois. edu/maps/poets/g_l/amylowell/life. htm) Amy Lowell was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, the daughter of Augustus Lowell and Katherine Bigelow Lawrence. Both sides of the family were New England aristocrats, wealthy and prominent members of society. Augustus Lowell was a businessman, civic leader, and horticulturalist, Katherine Lowell an accomplished musician and linguist. Although considered as â€Å"almost disreputable,† poets were part of the Lowell family, including James Russell Lowell, a first cousin, and later Robert Lowell. As the daughter of a wealthy family, Lowell was first educated at the family home, â€Å"Sevenels† (named by her father as a reference to the seven Lowells living there), by an English governess who left her with a lifelong inability to spell. Her first poem, â€Å"Chacago,† written at age nine, is testament to this problem. In the fall of 1883 Lowell began attending a series of private schools in Brookline and Boston. At school she was â€Å"the terror of the faculty† (Gould, p. 32). Even at Mrs.  Cabot’s school, founded by a Lowell cousin to educate her own children and the children of friends and relations, Lowell was â€Å"totally indifferent to classroom decorum. Noisy, opinionated, and spoiled, she terrorized the other students and spoke back to her teachers† (Heymann, p. 164). During school vacations Lowell traveled with her family. She went to Europe and to New Mexico and California. On the latter trip she kept a travel journal. Lowell enjoyed writing, and two stories she wrote during this time were printed in Dream Drops; or, Stories from Fairyland (1887), by a â€Å"Dreamer. The volume was published privately by her mother, who also contributed material, and the proceeds were donated to the Perkins Institute for the Blind. Lowell’s schooling included the usual classes in English, history, French, literature, and a little Italian. As Lowell later noted, â€Å"My family did not consider that it was necessary for girls to learn either Greek or Latin† (Damon, p. 87). She would also describe her formal education as not amounting to â€Å"a hill of beans† (Benvenuto, p. 6). School ended in 1891, and Lowell made her debut. Described as the â€Å"most popular debutante of the season,† she went to sixty dinners given in her honor. Her popularity was attributed to her skills in dancing and in the art of conversation, but her debut did not produce the expected marriage proposal. Although Lowell had finished formal schooling, she continued to educate herself. Unfortunately, higher education was not an option for Lowell women. She put herself through a â€Å"rigorous† reading program, using her father’s 7,000-volume library and the resources of the Boston Athenaeum (her great-grandfather was one of the founders). Later Lowell would successfully speak out against the proposed relocation of the Athenaeum; this would also become the subject of a poem. Lowell’s love of books themselves began with her first â€Å"Rollo† book, Rollo Learning to Read, which her mother gave her when she was six. This gift marked the beginning of an enthusiasm for book collecting that would last throughout her life. In 1891 she made her first major purchase of a set of the complete works of Sir Walter Scott with money she had received as a Christmas gift. It was, however, her collection of Keatsiana, including a rare first edition of Lamia inscribed to F. B. from J. K. (Fanny Brawne from John Keats), that put her in the forefront of international book collectors. Following her debut, Lowell led the life of a prominent socialite, visiting, going to parties and the theater, and traveling. Her mother, who had been an invalid for years, died in 1895. A disappointment in love prompted a winter trip to Egypt in 1897-1898. Lowell had accepted the proposal of a Bostonian whom she loved, but before the engagement was formally announced he â€Å"became entangled elsewhere† (Damon, p. 120). â€Å"The family could do nothing to protect her except guard tenaciously the name of the errant suitor† (Gould, p. 65). The trip was also for â€Å"health† reasons. Doctors felt Lowell’s obesity could be cured by the Egyptian heat and a diet of nothing but tomatoes and asparagus. The regimen almost killed her and resulted in a â€Å"prolonged nervous collapse. † In 1900 Lowell’s father died, and she bought Sevenels. She also bought a summer home in Dublin, New Hampshire, that she named â€Å"Broomley Lacey. † The area was home to the MacDowell Artists’ Colony as well as to other notable painters and sculptors. In Brookline Lowell assumed her father’s civic responsibilities. Early in 1902 she spoke against the reappointment of the elderly superintendent of the Brookline public school system. She was the â€Å"first woman in the Lowell family to make a speech in public† (Gould, p. 77). Initially booed, Lowell continued to speak with her usual forthrightness and, at the end, won applause as well as her point. Lowell became a member of the executive committee of the Brookline Education Society and chair of its Library Board. In October 1902 Lowell became a poet. Her interest in verse had been growing beyond her childhood enthusiasm, fueled by her reading Leigh Hunt’s Imagination and Fancy; or, Selections from the English Poets,which she had found â€Å"near the ceiling† in her father’s library. The volume was a revelation to her, opening a â€Å"door that might otherwise have remained shut,† Lowell remarked (Gould, p. 51). She had become enamored of poetry and the poets Hunt discussed, particularly Keats. After she saw Eleanora Duse perform one October night she wrote her first adult poem, â€Å"Eleanora Duse. † Although some critics say that she was being too hard on herself, Lowell described the 71-line poem as having â€Å"every cliche and every technical error which a poem can have. † Yet she also said, â€Å"It loosed a bolt in my brain and I found out where my true function lay† (Damon, p. 148). At age twenty-eight she had discovered her calling: to be a poet. In 1910 four of Lowell’s sonnets were accepted for publication by the Atlantic Monthly. â€Å"A Fixed Idea,† published first, appeared in August of that year. By 1912 she had published her first book of poetry, A Dome of Many-Colored Glass; the title came from Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Adonais, his elegy for Keats. It was not well received by either the public or the critics. Louis Untermeyer wrote that the book â€Å"to be brief, in spite of its lifeless classicism, can never rouse one’s anger. But, to be briefer still, it cannot rouse one at all† (Damon, p. 92). Yet 1912 was also the year that Lowell met actress Ada Dwyer Russell. The friendship between the two women has been described as platonic by some, as lesbian by others; it was, in fact, a â€Å"Boston marriage. â€Å" They lived together and were committed to each other until Lowell’s death. Russell was Lowell’s companion, providing love and emotional support, as well as the practical skill of organizing Lowell’s busy life. Biographer Richard Benvenuto observed that Lowell’s â€Å"great creative output between 1914 and 1925 would not have been possible without her friend’s steadying, supporting presence† (p. 0). The following year Lowell discovered some poems in Poetry by Hilda Doolittle, signed â€Å"H. D. Imagiste. † Lowell felt an identification with the style of H. D. ‘s poetry and determined to discover more about it. Armed with a letter of introduction from Poetry editor Harriet Monroe, Lowell traveled to London to meet Ezra Pound, head of the imagist movement. In London Lowell not only learned about imagism and free verse from Pound, but she also met many poets, several of whom became lifelong friends. Over the years Lowell would develop many literary friendships that resulted in an enormous volume of literary correspondence, requiring Lowell to employ two full-time secretaries. Lowell not only supported and encouraged other poets with her writing, such as her favorable review of Robert Frost’s North of Boston in the New Republic (20 Feb. 1915), but also with money and gifts. Lowell’s poems began to appear in increasing numbers in journals, and she was becoming a prolific writer of essays and reviews. Pound had requested the inclusion of her poem â€Å"In a Garden† in his anthology Des Imagistes(1914). Later Lowell and Pound would have a falling out over the direction of the imagist movement, and Pound would call the movement, as adapted by Lowell, â€Å"Amygism. † Lowell became the spokesperson of imagism, leading the fight for the â€Å"renewal of poetry in her homeland† (Francis, p. 510), and her efforts were tireless. She traveled throughout the country, â€Å"selling† the new poetry. Her own volume Sword Blades and Poppy Seed (1914), written in free verse and polyphonic prose, a Lowell invention, â€Å"brought her an instantaneous phenomenal rise to fame† (Gould, p. 139). Lowell’s first book of criticism, Six French Poets (1915), based on a series of her lectures, was also well received. Lowell was publishing a book a year, alternating between volumes of short verse and longer poems. Men, Women and Ghosts (1916) was highly regarded and contained â€Å"Patterns† one of her most famous poems. In it an eighteenth-century woman, walking in her garden, contemplates a future that has suddenly become empty because of the loss of her fiance in battle; she mourns the fact that the â€Å"Patterns† of her role required her to remain chaste before marriage. The next year she published another critical volume, Tendencies in Modern American Poetry, which included essays on six contemporary poets: Edwin Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, Edgar Lee Masters, Carl Sandburg, H. D. , and John Gould Fletcher. Lowell also published anthologies of imagist poets in 1915, 1916, and 1917. Her next volume of poetry, Can Grande’s Castle (1918), included four long poems; the title was taken from the name of the refuge where Dante, the Florentine exile, wrote portions of his Divine Comedy. Inspired by her lifelong interest in the Orient, Pictures of a Floating World (1919) is a translation of the Japanese word ukiyo-e, a term commonly associated with a form of eighteenth-century Japanese painting. It includes 174 short, free verse lyrics, considered by some as â€Å"overtly erotic. † For example, â€Å"A Decade† and â€Å"The Weathercock Points South† are described as a celebration of lesbian devotion. Legends (1921) contains eleven longer poems, and Fir-Flower Tablets (1921) is a collection of poems based on translations of ancient Chinese verse. Since Lowell did not read Chinese, she was dependent on English translations by Florence Wheelock Ayscough, which Lowell then turned back into poetry. A Critical Fable (1922) is a long, humorous poem, evaluating the state of contemporary poetry. Originally published anonymously, the poem pokes fun at fellow poets and at Lowell herself in lines of rhymed couplets. The poem was modeled on James Russell Lowell’s A Fable for Critics (1848). Her last publication was the momentous biography , John Keats (1925). In 1921 Lowell had given an address at Yale honoring Keats on the one-hundredth anniversary of his birth. The lecture stimulated her to write the book, which minutely examines Keats’s life and corrects some long-standing misconceptions about him. Lowell was also the first biographer to see Fanny Brawne in a favorable light. The book was well received in the United States but not in Britain, where she was accused of writing â€Å"a psychological thriller† rather than a literary biography. Lowell was angry and heartbroken but in typical fashion determined to confront the critics on their own turf.

A.I.D.S. essays

A.I.D.S. essays Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome A.I.D.S., also known as Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, is a disorder of the bodys immune system. In A.I.D.S. the body stops producing some of its important natural defenses against disease. Victims often die from disease of infections they cannot fight. A.I.D.S is the result of an infection known as HIV, human immunodeficiency virus. A person with HIV gradually loses function of their immune system, becoming less able to fight off common colds and virus, thus eventually leading to death. HIV was first revealed in the early 80s in homosexual men. Infection with HIV does not necessarily mean that a person does have A.I.D.S. A person can be HIV positive for years without developing illnesses that are associated with the A.I.D.S. disease. HIV is characterized by a gradual deterioration of the immune system. Cells known as T-Helper cells are disabled and killed during the course of the infection. These cells play an important part in the human body because they signal other cells to perform The AIDS epidemic is growing very rapidly among minority populations and is a leading killer of African American males. HIV can be transmitted by contact with infected blood, most often by the sharing of drug needles or syringes contaminated with blood containing the virus. The risk of contacting the HIV virus from blood transfusions has decreased since earlier years. Now all donated blood is screened for any signs of the HIV virus. HIV is spread most commonly by having sex with someone who already has the virus. The virus can enter the human body through the lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum, or mouth during sex. Almost all HIV infected children get the HIV virus from their mothers before or during birth. A drug known as AZT can reduce risk of transmission of the virus from mother to child. The virus...

The Everyday Man essays

The Everyday Man essays As far as it is perceivable, the stereotypical male mind is made up of two mental elements: the need for superiority, and the need to enhance said superiority. To retain any ambition in life, there must be a target to surpass; a particular goal; an icon of inferiority to realise ones superiority. However, for this to balance there needs to be an equilibrium; two extremes that balance one another; (the superior being) and (the inferior being). The two extremes can range. It is possible to have two males in similar positions academically, or two males either side of the academic scale; and in either scenario the male mentality will be to surpass one another. At this stage of the male mind friends and allies cease to be focal in the overall objective, and instead become in themselves targets (; inferior beings) that target a must surpass to reach what is considered the ultimate aspiration. Ironically to first be in such a position, where you can take allies and friends for granted, you must build up a rapport from which you can derive superiority. Hitler a carbon copy that portrays this psyche; building up a military rapport of superiority that places him within a position of power; not just to influence those who he has surpassed, but in turn allows him the power to dictate the actions of those who he has surpassed in such a way that they in turn dictate the actions of the general population. In this case Hitler () influencing the Jewish population () through the enforcement of Nazi Elite (). However in terms of ambition, the influencing factor, , will always contain as much to aspire to as subject a. Within a sports team there are numerous slots, however the overriding ambition is to obtain star status, to become the pinnacle that so much attention is focussed upon; the one position that all others aspire to, and too which you a ...

Word Choice Role vs. Roll

Word Choice Role vs. Roll Word Choice: Role vs. Roll Some words, such as â€Å"roll,† have more definitions than is strictly decent. And since it sounds identical to the word â€Å"role,† it is easy to get these terms mixed up. But if you check out our guide to using â€Å"role† and â€Å"roll† correctly, you can be confident your written work will be spelling error free. Role (A Position or Part) We’ll begin with â€Å"role,† since this term has fewer meanings. Its main use is to indicate a position within an organization or system. In particular, being in a specific â€Å"role† usually implies having a purpose or duty: My role as a proofreader is to check texts for errors. Proofreading plays an important role in the publishing industry. The other key use of â€Å"role† is to mean â€Å"part for an actor†: I auditioned for the lead role in the play. One thing to note here is that â€Å"role† is always a noun, never a verb. The Many Meanings of â€Å"Roll† â€Å"Roll† has several uses as a verb and a noun. As a verb, these include: Turn over to face a different direction (e.g., I rolled onto my back) Move via turning (e.g., The car rolled down the hill) Turn something into a ball or tube (e.g., She rolled the clay in her hands) Make something smooth and flat (e.g., Roll out the pastry) Make a continuous, repeated sound (e.g., The thunder rolled loudly) And as a noun, we can use â€Å"roll† to refer to the following: The act of rolling (e.g., I will do a forward roll) Something that has been rolled into a tube (e.g., A roll of carpet) An official list of names (e.g., An electoral roll) A continuous, repeated sound (e.g., A drum roll) A small bread product (e.g., A bread roll) This isn’t even a full list of the uses of â€Å"roll.† For example, a tear can â€Å"roll† down your cheek, and a ship might â€Å"roll† from side to side in rough seas. However, we have covered the main uses of â€Å"roll† above. And the main thing to take away from this is that â€Å"roll† has many definitions! Summary: Role or Roll? The key here is remembering what â€Å"role† means, as this term has fewer uses: The noun role means â€Å"position in a system† or â€Å"part for an actor.† Roll can be either a noun or a verb . Its meanings include turning over, making a low rumbling sound, a list of names, and a small bread product. In essence, then, if you’re referring to a position or part in something, the correct spelling will be â€Å"role.† In any other situation, â€Å"roll† will be correct. But if you want to make doubly sure that your writing is free from errors, you can always have it proofread by our expert editors.

Rules of Statutory Interpretation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Rules of Statutory Interpretation - Essay Example In order to find the intent and meaning of legislation, judges use various rules and approaches of statutory interpretation such as legislative history and the traditional statutory interpretation canons. The use of rules and approaches in statutory interpretation is necessary because of the following reasons: more often than not, words have more than one meaning; errors of omission or commission may have been committed during the drafting if the statute; words can prove to be imperfect means of communication; and, society may experience new developments that may render some words in the statute out-of-date since they can no longer cover contemporary situations.2 Rules and approaches to statutory interpretations have been developed by the judges; the Interpretation Act of 1978 provides basic definitions which are necessary during statutory interpretations.3 As a matter of fact, the main function of the courts is to interpret the Acts of Parliament; they have the role of attempting to establish the Parliament’s intention in passing of a particular Act and make a decision based on that intention. However, there is a view among legal scholars and practitioners that the rules and approaches that apply to statutory interpretation give too much latitude to the courts, and there seem to be no underpinning principles.4 It is in the light of this that this paper will focus on the rules and approaches that apply to statutory interpretation and discuss the validity of this view. In addition, it will consider the influence of the European Law in regard to this topic. As has been noted, the courts use rules and approaches in interpreting statutes. Conventionally, the judge will perform the following tasks during statutory interpretations: consider the legislative intent of the statute, objective meaning of the appropriate text, the traditional canons of the statutory interpretation, and the general purposes and policies behind the legislation among others.5 Based on those considerations, the court may determine how the statute could be interpreted to mean.6 However, the court may also determine that there is no sufficient reason to prefer one way of interpretation over the other. This is one of the reasons that make some legal scholars and practitioners to have the view that the rules and Approaches that apply to statutory interpretation give too much latitude to the courts.7 They argue that even though it is assumed that diligent application of these rules and approaches will enable the courts to be persuaded on which interpretation is legally preferable; in some cases the courts encounter frustrations while attempting to find the legally preferable interpretation of statutes. As a result, sometimes judges have to pretend that these rules and approaches have yielded decisive interpretation when in real sense they have not, a situation that encourages arbitrariness and obfuscation in making of judicial decisions.8 In order to effectively discus s the validity of the view that 'The Rules and Approaches that apply to statutory interpretation give too much latitude to the courts, and it seems there are no underpinning principles', it is important to understand what these rules and

Origin and Early Expansion of Islam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Origin and Early Expansion of Islam - Essay Example This change was mainly brought about by the new religion of Islam. "Islam exploded upon the world with the sudden force of a desert whirlwind."1(Hyslop 1991,18) Islam unified the tribal groups of Arabia and its sphere of influence increased with more and more people being drawn to the new religion. By the beginning of the eighth century, Islam had spread from India in the east to Spain in the west, making the other ancient empires look puny by contrast. This spectacular expansion of Islam was made possible by the social, political and economic conditions of the people prevailing during the time and the simplicity of the religion.. It is indubitable that Islam brought many different peoples together because of its emphasis on charity. Arabia was peopled by the nomadic Bedouin tribes as well as the traders and merchants who lived a settled life. The Bedouins were poor and had a hard life, while the traders and merchants lived a settled life of comfort. Trade routes from many countries crossed in South Arabia. Luxury goods like silk, spices and precious stones were brought from India and China by the arab dhows, which then were transported by land, in caravans to the empires of the Mediterranean and Europe. The Arab traders who controlled the trade from India and China to the Mediterranean and European countries became very rich. Greed of the rich was increasing while the poor people suffered untold hardships. In 613 A.D, when Mohammad first started preaching his new religion, with its emphasis on charity to the poor, it appealed to the rich and poor alike. Many people converted to the new religion. Another reason for the rapid rise of Islam was that religion was not separate from politics in Islam. According to Goldschmidt, "Religion was a corporate experience, a community of believers bound together by adherence to a common set of laws and beliefs, rather than a private and personal relationship between each person and his maker. Religion and politics were inextricably intertwined."2 (Goldschmidt 2005, 106) At the time, the Byzantine Empire with its capital at Constantinople , and the Sassanian Empire ,had both become impoverished by constant wars. The weakened conditions of the formidable empires made it easy for the Islamic warriors to conquer new lands. "The fierce efficiency of the desert warriors and their fervor under Islam contributed to the explosive campaign of conquest."3 (Hyslop 1991, 40) The appeal of the new religion was very great- it attracted people from all walks of life. The basic rules required to be followed by the followers of Islam, who were called Muslims, were only five, and they were very simple. The first rule was, acknowledging that there is only one god who is called Allah, and that Mohammad was his prophet. The second rule was to pray five times a day facing Mecca. The third rule was to fast during the month of Ramzan. The fourth rule was to pay zakat , a kind of charity , and the fifth rule was to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a Muslim's lifetime. The rewards for observing these simple rules were quite attractive for the Arabs. They would share the loot, as well as receive attractive rewards in the

Nursing Leadership Philosophy and Diversity statement Essay

Nursing Leadership Philosophy and Diversity statement - Essay Example Therefore, it is the responsibility of healthcare management to lead and influence the development of expectations, vision, and shared values to ensure overall effectiveness and direct the organisation towards the achievement of planned goals and objectives. Healthcare and hospital providers are today adjusting to changes of environment and redirecting their management policies. For every nurse to provide good quality care to his or her patients, he or she should become more efficient when administering care, should improve peer practices, elevate peer’s standards of care within the hospital environment, and advocate his or her patients. All these acts represent the attributes of an effective nurse leader. A nurse who sees the need for improvement, change, advancement, and innovation forms fundamental traits that are essential in active leadership (Sherman, Schwarzkopf, & Kiger, 2011). As conditions change day by day, the delivery of care also changes, therefore, the need for flexibility and versatility during care giving, for effective adaptation to these changes as they occur. Thus, my nursing practice has been mentored through programs that are directed by the theory of situational leadership that has helped me to nurture and develop my innate traits for the betterment of my peers and patients depending on how the situations occur. The senior leaders in my organisation encouraged subordinate leaders to develop various leadership styles to manage different circumstances and situations better. I have researched a number of leadership theories in nursing during self-evaluation, and I have concluded that my leadership styles can be well described by situational leadership theory. This is because of my capability to adapt to various situations as they occur, love to work in a team, my practice is evidence based, and allow my peers to contribute in decision-making. The situational leadership

Prophecy and Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Prophecy and Justice - Essay Example For instance, the Israelites had a conviction that divine messages were often communicated to a prophet via visions and dreams. This paper discusses ancient prophets from their different background because each prophet spoke primarily in and their own life situation. In most circumstances, prophets were against a social or king’s policies or religious injustice in the society (Frigge 77). Prophet message was a reality that many people feared to hear. In addition, prophets faced opposing and suffering at the hands of their people and leaders such as Kings. It is vital to note that Israel had both female and male prophets who delivered Gods messages to the people. Prophets believed that they received divine call from Yahweh to proclaim God message to the people. In both the old and new testament the word of God is preached relentlessly with proclamation that those who do not adhere to the teachings of God, will burn in hell while those who listens and practices the word of God w ill go to heaven and thus have an eternal life. For a long time, Israel had an oracle culture in that the spoken word of God was very significant in a person’s life. This is because it conveyed the information from God and meant the presence of the person speaking (Frigge 77). Examples of the prophet who prophesized are Amos, Hosea, first Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and second Isaiah. Prophets used symbolic language in order to pass their information to the people. For instance, marriage relationship was used to show that God was seen as a faithful husband while the people as unfaithful wife; adultery and prostitution showed Israel praise and worship of false gods. More so, vine and vineyard was used to present Israel as vine planted in good soil and given maximum care by God. Unfortunately, the Vine produced rotten fruits which resemble the behavior of Israelites (St. Mary’s Bible). In addition, God is presented as a caring and loving father who cared for his children. Prophets were called discern Gods message to the people at a crucial point in Israel when there was political and religious intolerance. They were given the role to come and give message of peace and hope to those who were exploited by the government. Prophets came to proclaim justice for the people in that they warned people to worship God alone. In this sense, the people of Israel were offer rituals worship to God in that worship of any other was not right as per the law of Torah. In addition, people were encouraged to practice and exercise social justice since they were Gods people. For them to be free they were to treat one another righteously as God treated them; therefore, they were to care and liberate for each other as children of God. They warned that those people, who resisted the prophets, resisted Gods word and therefore, they were destined to perish. After the exile, God was willing to act again and give life in order to bring people back to covenant faithfulness. Due t o God’s mercy to his people, he was ready to give them a second chance to work for him (St. Mary’s Bible). The leaders had failed to direct their subjects to the right path in that they engaged in all sorts of political and religious injustice making their people to follow what they said. For instance, some leaders made their subjects to worship idols and did not care about the weakest and poor people in society. In order to save his people from exploitation, Davidic covenant was instituted to protect and preserve the

Drawing on a discussion of major theoretical perspectives in Essay

Drawing on a discussion of major theoretical perspectives in philisophy, and developing your own philosophical arguments, critic - Essay Example In undertaking this task, the writer is aware that one cannot fully encapsulate in one setting the entirety of the notion of sports, however, it hopes that as the paper continues some of the vagueness that some of the attributes inhering the concept may be clarified and establish a clearer notion of sports. SPORTS: WHAT IS IT? Morgan (1976) has looked into the discussion between Huizinga and Gerber regarding the notion of play, which , in turn paves for the possibility for the ontology of ports. Huizinga looks into sports as play (Morgan, 1976). In this signification, one can see the equivalence that is juxtaposed between sports and play. According to Morgan (1976), for Huizing ,play is â€Å"an irreducible facet of life whose meaning resides within itself and is not, therefore, contingent on any end it is instrumentally employed, quite incidentally and perhaps inauthentically, to bring about† (p. 25). This whole concept offers the supposition that play is something that is â €Å"non-real† and â€Å"non serious†, a â€Å"free activity standing quite consciously outside ordinary life. If this kind of reasoning is pursued and associated with sports considering that there is a presupposition that Huizinga is looking at sports a play, it opens the notion that sport ahs intrinsic value that is or used not because of any extenuating factors that influence the players, but it is engaged in for its own sake. At this point Gerber, argued that there is seeming misunderstanding of the concept of ‘to be’ in Huizinga’s concept of ‘play is nonreal’ (Morgan,1976). She maintains that there is no ontological impossibility in assuming that play is non real since how can a real person be in play and yet at the same time maintain there is ‘non realness’ in the experience. Morgan (1976) untangling g the dilemma, proposes the position that the term ‘to be’ in the statement â€Å"play is non real† is to be understood as not referring to existential ‘is’, but should be understood in the context of the Platonic ‘to be’ which, is a signifier for differentiation and variation but not necessarily referring to existence. This means that the ‘to be’ is not an existential is which denotes the notion that there is no question pertaining to the idea of realness in connection with existing. This position is further supported by the Heideggerian distinction between the ontic and ontology . as a point of clarification, ontic is knowledge base on the actual experience whereas the Heideggerian ontology refers to a prior experience of the phenomenon that allows for the formulation of the criterion that enables one to understand the events not because one has experienced, but because one has extracted from the categories, which makes the phenomenon what it is, and in this sense the phenomenon is play. In this regard, Morgan(1976) has presupposed that Hu izinga has misappropriated the terms ‘non real’ when associated with play in the context that it is justified on the premise of the Heidegerrian ontic sense, yet it s is seeks to provide a way to come out with the ontological validity for the concept of play. Gerber has clearly noted this in the counter argument against Huizinga when she

Link between Al Ain Distribution Company strategy and CSR Essay

Link between Al Ain Distribution Company strategy and CSR - Essay Example AADC‘s mission is to service current demand of water and electricity. AADC’s responsibility â€Å"is to reliably, securely and safely distribute water and electricity from Transco’s termination points to residential, commercial, agricultural and government consumers in the Al Ain Region. (AADC). The social responsibility of AADC has been incorporated in this mission that specifies reliability in the course of its operation. Corporate responsibility is about how the company aligns its values and behavior with the expectations and needs of stakeholders, customers, employees, suppliers, communities, regulators, special interest groups and society. (CSR Network) Issues that are covered by the CSR are governance, environmental management, stakeholder engagement, labor standards, employee and community relations, social equity, responsible sourcing and human rights. AADC is expected to be a reliable supplier of clean and potable water to the district as well as a steady supplier of electricity in an effective cost manner. ADC sees shortage of water supply in the future that has to be resolved and at the same time considers the operating costs related to this. It has the social responsibility of correct billing information to customers. It has to devise a system that will address lack of metering process; manual calculations and IT system bring incorrect billing to customers. It has the social responsibility to manage the company profitably for the interest of stakeholders. AADC has the responsibility to develop and train its human resources, provide adequate pay, to motivate them for satisfactory performance and employee retention. AADC has the social equity responsibility to remove discrimination on work policy and ethics particularly on hiring of women in order to fill the lack of manpower. AADC’s social responsibility and commitments to Health, Safety and Environment. (AADE) AADC aims to minimize HSE risks

Prophecy and Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Prophecy and Justice - Essay Example For instance, the Israelites had a conviction that divine messages were often communicated to a prophet via visions and dreams. This paper discusses ancient prophets from their different background because each prophet spoke primarily in and their own life situation. In most circumstances, prophets were against a social or king’s policies or religious injustice in the society (Frigge 77). Prophet message was a reality that many people feared to hear. In addition, prophets faced opposing and suffering at the hands of their people and leaders such as Kings. It is vital to note that Israel had both female and male prophets who delivered Gods messages to the people. Prophets believed that they received divine call from Yahweh to proclaim God message to the people. In both the old and new testament the word of God is preached relentlessly with proclamation that those who do not adhere to the teachings of God, will burn in hell while those who listens and practices the word of God w ill go to heaven and thus have an eternal life. For a long time, Israel had an oracle culture in that the spoken word of God was very significant in a person’s life. This is because it conveyed the information from God and meant the presence of the person speaking (Frigge 77). Examples of the prophet who prophesized are Amos, Hosea, first Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and second Isaiah. Prophets used symbolic language in order to pass their information to the people. For instance, marriage relationship was used to show that God was seen as a faithful husband while the people as unfaithful wife; adultery and prostitution showed Israel praise and worship of false gods. More so, vine and vineyard was used to present Israel as vine planted in good soil and given maximum care by God. Unfortunately, the Vine produced rotten fruits which resemble the behavior of Israelites (St. Mary’s Bible). In addition, God is presented as a caring and loving father who cared for his children. Prophets were called discern Gods message to the people at a crucial point in Israel when there was political and religious intolerance. They were given the role to come and give message of peace and hope to those who were exploited by the government. Prophets came to proclaim justice for the people in that they warned people to worship God alone. In this sense, the people of Israel were offer rituals worship to God in that worship of any other was not right as per the law of Torah. In addition, people were encouraged to practice and exercise social justice since they were Gods people. For them to be free they were to treat one another righteously as God treated them; therefore, they were to care and liberate for each other as children of God. They warned that those people, who resisted the prophets, resisted Gods word and therefore, they were destined to perish. After the exile, God was willing to act again and give life in order to bring people back to covenant faithfulness. Due t o God’s mercy to his people, he was ready to give them a second chance to work for him (St. Mary’s Bible). The leaders had failed to direct their subjects to the right path in that they engaged in all sorts of political and religious injustice making their people to follow what they said. For instance, some leaders made their subjects to worship idols and did not care about the weakest and poor people in society. In order to save his people from exploitation, Davidic covenant was instituted to protect and preserve the

Link between Al Ain Distribution Company strategy and CSR Essay

Link between Al Ain Distribution Company strategy and CSR - Essay Example AADC‘s mission is to service current demand of water and electricity. AADC’s responsibility â€Å"is to reliably, securely and safely distribute water and electricity from Transco’s termination points to residential, commercial, agricultural and government consumers in the Al Ain Region. (AADC). The social responsibility of AADC has been incorporated in this mission that specifies reliability in the course of its operation. Corporate responsibility is about how the company aligns its values and behavior with the expectations and needs of stakeholders, customers, employees, suppliers, communities, regulators, special interest groups and society. (CSR Network) Issues that are covered by the CSR are governance, environmental management, stakeholder engagement, labor standards, employee and community relations, social equity, responsible sourcing and human rights. AADC is expected to be a reliable supplier of clean and potable water to the district as well as a steady supplier of electricity in an effective cost manner. ADC sees shortage of water supply in the future that has to be resolved and at the same time considers the operating costs related to this. It has the social responsibility of correct billing information to customers. It has to devise a system that will address lack of metering process; manual calculations and IT system bring incorrect billing to customers. It has the social responsibility to manage the company profitably for the interest of stakeholders. AADC has the responsibility to develop and train its human resources, provide adequate pay, to motivate them for satisfactory performance and employee retention. AADC has the social equity responsibility to remove discrimination on work policy and ethics particularly on hiring of women in order to fill the lack of manpower. AADC’s social responsibility and commitments to Health, Safety and Environment. (AADE) AADC aims to minimize HSE risks

Inventory System Essay Example for Free

Inventory System Essay With our fast-paced developing society, many of our institutions optimize to perform their procedures in a computerized manner. They consider this as a great reliable process to lean on. They believe that this method will help them catch-up with this quick changing situations that they encounter each day. However, it is hard to imagine that many of us still stick to the manual method knowing that computerized system is just there waiting for them to take advantage of. There are several reasons that are forcing them to be stuck with to this traditional system. One of these is illiteracy; no one in this world is unable to understand and adapt to the computerized system if it will be properly introduced and taught. Another one is being doubtful with the system; they believe that manual system can perform less error than an automated system. But as the years goes by, a number of certain works have grown indicating that the manual method is not practical and efficient anymore. Nowadays, people have become more conscious with their time and they find essential ways on how they can do such work in less time or how they can do their number of works at the same time. This study is aimed at developing a computerized system for a barangay that still practices a traditional way of creating a Barangay Clearance and management of database. We will do this by incorporating the technology of using camera and stylus pen for creating a Barangay Clearance. We will also use the computer to properly manage their files. By using our system, their barangay employees can have fast, more practical and efficient way of doing their tasks. This chapter will provide an overview of the study, present general and specific objectives, state the scope and limitations, and give its significance. Background of the Study Barangay Molino VI was formed by Governor Juanito Remulla, it was then only the Soldiers Hills IV Subdivision, which was comprised of four (4) phases. The first appointed Barangay Chairman was Mr. Reu Lucio Samaco. He was appointed by then Governor Juanito Remulla. The first Sangguniang Barangay Officials were the Homeowners Association Officers of the four phases of the Subdivision. The legality of the appointment of Mr. Reu Lucio Samaco was questionable at that time, since he was in active service in the military consequently; Mayor Victor Miranda then appointed Mr. Tarsicio Dalman and assumed the office of the Barangay Chairman. After two years of assuming as interim Barangay Official, a Barangay Election was held in 1994. Thus, Mr. Tarsicio Dalman ran for the position of a Barangay Chairman and won. Together with his Barangay Kagawad officials who also won were Antero Anero, Wilfredo Arjinal, Mario Cruz, Joey Eslao, Jose Virrey, Remedios Prospero and Amante Isla. They were the first elected Sangguniang Barangay Council. The first elected Sangguniang Kabataan Chairman was Amil Rasuman and the Appointed Secretary was Gloria Galve and likewise the Barangay Treasurer was Evelyn Soriano. In 1997, another Barangay Election was held, another victory again for Mr. Tarsicio Dalman as Barangay Chairman. He served the Barangay Molino VI until his untimely death December in 2000. The first elected Kagawad then assumed the Barangay Chairmanship was Ms. Remedios Prospero. It was in the term of Kapitana Remy, as she was fondly called by her constituents that Barangay Molino VI ballooned in terms of population, housing, and small business. As of now, Barangay Molino VI is composed of four Subdivisions: the Soldiers Hills IV Subdivision which comprises of four phases, BF el Grande Homes II, BF Topman Homes II, and Woodwinds Village with a total population of 17,000. We have also identified depressed areas which are located around the perimeter of the subdivision, named as Maralit Compound, ARC Compound, the Creekside, Manggahan Alonzo Area, the Block 16 Hicban Area and Block 12 Barracks. The dominant religion in this barangay is the Roman Catholic which is about fifty percent, the Iglesia Ni Cristo about 25 percent and the remaining percentage is divided among the Protestants, Jehovah Witnesses, and Islam respectively. The researcher of this study proposed a system named Design and Development of a Computerized Barangay Clearance with Information System for Barangay Molino VI that will help the barangay constituents. To properly manage their files in a computerized manner create a process of Barangay Clearance done in a more efficient way. This system will be helpful for the maintaining, searching, and storing of records of those residents that have past incident reports. This will help barangay employees to do their work in a faster and more reliable process. Theoretical Framework As Carlos Richard A. Bawalan, Edgar C. Miguel, Ma. Carmela M. Reyes and John Frederick Sia Sy stated in their study entitled Faculty Tracking Device Nowadays, we are dependent on computers from simple to complicated computation, from small to big business and many more. Computers are here to stay and will continue to increase its influence in the lives of many people, throughout the future. Different transactions are made easy through a computer companies which are using computers especially to their databases. Companies believe that through computerization, they save time and effort and they are sure that their work is accurate and reliable. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. â€Å"The process of preparing programs for a digital computer is especially attractive, not only because it can be economically and scientifically rewarding, but also because it can be an aesthetic experience.† -Donald Knuth However, testing by itself does not improve software quality. Test results are indicators of quality, but in and of themselves, they dont improve it. Try to improve software quality by increasing the amount of testing; the software development techniques you use determine how many errors testing will find. If you want to improve your software, dont test more; develop better. â€Å"A program is never less than 90% complete, and never more than 95% complete.† – Terry Baker Lastly, computerized systems are not really perfect or we can say that a perfect computerized system does not exist. We have chosen this as one of our principles because we cannot prevent criticisms from the users of our system especially those with people who are not really knowledgeable about the capabilities or limited capabilities of a computerized system. We can promise them improvement, but not absolute perfection. â€Å"If we think across so many different scenarios, the way they were typically done a few years ago and the way they will typically be done a few years from now, it will show a dramatic change We are developing software that’s in the car, in the phone, of course in the PC, the set-up box, the watch. All the places where software can run, we want to make sure that we do the best we can to make that connect up and to make it seamless.† – Bill Gates As emphasized by Bill Gates, the owner and founder of Microsoft Network, we have a need for computerization to be able to compete with other countries and demonstrate their potential when it comes to globalization. Aside from most of the possible gadgets to be automated, Mr. Gates envisions greater means in enhancing one’s chance in becoming successful. Truly, this experienced entrepreneur and Information Technology magnate has the ideologies of the best chances and ways in achieving the betterment of different business industries. â€Å"With the renewed business confidence, we intend to promote the country as the e-service hub of Asia and seize the I.T.’s potent opportunity for growth and development. The government and the private sector have developed the electronic commerce action agenda or ISP.com to achieve this objective. The ISP.com is a comprehensive strategy to develop an environment conducive for the investment in, and growth of E-commerce. The plan identifies a focus market where Filipino companies can concentrate to maximize inherent advantages of the country’s human resource† – Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo Obviously, the former President wants the Filipinos to realize that it is never too late to discover and learn the possible advantages that we can gain from adopting Information Technology (I.T.) for various businesses. To be sure, great innovation can take place if the country will just communicate and seek the assistance of people who are knowledgeable when it comes to enhancing I.T possibilities. Definitely, our country needs to wake up and see the great possibilities I.T. can bring, once it is being employed.

Fluoroquinolones for Infectious Diseases Treatment

Fluoroquinolones for Infectious Diseases Treatment 1.10 Pharmaceuticals 1.10.2 Fluoroquinolones Fluoroquinolones are extensively used for treatment of various infectious diseases. [[1]]. Because of their extensive Gram negative treatment, quinolone antibiotics were initially used for the treatment urinary tract related diseases. Higher drug concentrations promote their effectiveness in the treatment of urinary infections. lomefloxacin, levofloxacin ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, enrofloxacin, and gatifloxacin have higher renal clearance to analyze the activity of the kidney and urine concentration test measures the ability of the kidneys to excrete water. Fluoroquinolones enter the environment by different routes including municipal and industrial wastewater effluent. The recent studies show that from many parts of the world reported the presence of fluoroquinolones in surface water bodies at concentrations ranging from non-detectable to around 50 ng dm-3 [[2]]. The existence and addition of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in aquatic environments, at very low concentrations, may cause affect to the ecosystem and human health. They require development of the different oxidation methods for the transformation of fluoroquinolones in water during water treatment. Disinfection processes (e.g., chlorination, oxidation, and UV irradiation) appear to result in considerable addition of fluoroquinolone and their transformation during municipal treatment of waste before to release into water stream [[3]]. An added disinfectant may undergo transformation reactions with antibacterial agents during water treatment. Sodium hypochlorite is a commonly intended for chlorination of water during disinfection process, and also potassium permanganate may be also used for disinfection processes[[4][5]]. Considering the occurrence of chlorine in municipal wastewater and drinking water disinfection processes, reactions with aqueous chlorine species likely play a particularly important role in the environmental fate of fluoroquinolones. Levofloxacin Levofloxacin is in a class of antibacterial agent called fluoroquinolones. It is used for the treatment of certain bacterial infections. Levofloxacin is used to treat certain infections such as urinary tract, chronic pneumonia, bronchitis, kidney and skin infections. Levofloxacin may used to prevent anthrax in people who may have been open to anthrax germs in the air. It works by destroying bacteria that causes infections. Antibiotics will not work for viral infections, flu, colds, or other diseases. Lomefloxacin Structure of Lomefloxacin (LMF) Lomefloxacin is also class of fluoroquinolones antibacterial agent.This used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It is used to treat bacterial infections including bronchitis and urinary tract infections. Lomefloxacin is associated with photo toxicity and central nervous system adverse effects [[6]]. 1.10.3 Oxazolidinones The oxazolidinones, a new class of synthetic antibacterial agents have a distinctive mechanism of to contorol bacterial protein synthesis. The oxazolidinone to be approved for clinical use, show in-vitro activity against many important resistant harmful organisms. Clinical trials verified the action in the setting of pneumonia soft-tissue, and skin infections, and infections due to vancomycin-resistant. [[7]]. Linezolid Linezolid is an antibacterial agent used to treat certain serious bacterial infections that have not taken action from other antibacterial agents. Linezolid is not only used to treats bacterial infections, but also for viral infections. Unnecessary use or over use of any antibiotic can lead to its reduces effectiveness. Linezolid is a relatively safe drug; it can be used in patients of all ages and in people with poor kidney function or liver disease [[8]]. The current study was undertaken to elucidate reaction products, kinetics, and mechanism between free available chlorine (FAC) or permanganate with fluoroquinolones class of antibacterial agents such as levofloxacin (LFC) Lomefloxacin (LMF) and oxazolidinone class of antibacterial agent linezolid (LNZ). Which are the most popular for disease control and prevention in the recently are used. 1.10.1. Routes of pharmaceuticals entering into the environment The figures 1.4.a. and 1.4.b. and figure 1.5 shows that a large fraction of clinically prescribed antibiotic dose is discharged into municipal waste water systems due to incomplete metabolism of antibiotics within the human body. (Rain) runoff water carries the hospital wastes to rivers and contaminates the river water. In recent years, there has been growing concern about the presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Continuous exposure of antibiotics to bacterial communities, promotes the bacteria to develop antibiotic resistance. Possible induction of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is directly related to human health. The action of antibiotics during water treatment process clearly plays a significant role in this regard. Antibacterials and other pharmaceutical are having the tendency to persist contaminants in the water supply is of increasing concern in the field of environmental toxicology. Several national and international bodies have reported the presence of antibacterials in surface water, ground water, drinking water, and waste water [[9]]. Antibacterials were primarily observed as â€Å"wonder medicines† mainly because they were introduced from surgical drains or spontaneous cure were available to treat serious bacterial diseases. Many classes of these antibacterial agents were discovered in the last five to six decades. These include penicillins, sulfonamides, trimethoprim, chloramphenicol, cephalosporins, colimycins, tetracyclines, lincosamides etc, [[10]]. Understanding the fate and transportation of antibacterial agents in the aquatic environment is vital to properly assess the risk associated with these emerging contaminants [[11]]. What happens to these antibacterial agents during municipal water treatment? Municipal water treatment essentially involve following processes; The steps involved in conventional water treatment method are shown in the above flow diagram. The aeration process is carried out to remove the odor from the water. The filtration is the removal of the solids, specially suspended matter, by passing the water through a granular media (sand, coal, diatomaceous earth, granular activated carbon). The colloidal particles pass through the filtration process and removed using coagulants in the flocculation process. The micro contaminants, which are dissolved in water, can easily pass through aeration, filtration and flocculation processes but they may react with the disinfectants in the last process. What are the commonly used disinfectants? Chlorine: Chlorine gas, NaOCl, Bleaching powder, Conventional water treatment Chloramines: Weak disinfectant and low rate of reaction Ozone: Costly UV/H2O2: Costly Not suitable for Municipal water treatment KMnO4: Potassium permanganate is usually applied for waste water treatment 1.11 Disinfection Disinfection is the process of killing pathogenic organisms like bacteria and viruses in the drinking water supply. It is the last step in the treatment and is necessary to supply a â€Å"bacteriologically free† drinking water for the general public usage. Disinfection is the necessary step before the public water supplies. Chlorination is the treatment technique of killing harmful microorganisms in water supplies. 1.11.1 Chlorination An added layer of complexity in this problem lies in the potential bio-transformation antibacterial agents can undergo during drinking water chlorination. Chlorination, in the form of sodium hypochlorite, is a common mechanism of drinking water disinfection. [[12]]. Chlorination has been shown degradation of certain parent drugs in drinking water [[13]]. The effect of chlorination has been studied for several non antibacterials. However, these studies are few in comparison to the variety of pharmaceutical contaminants our environment faces [[14]]. A long-term objective of this research work is to know the fate of antibacterial in the water supply when they are exposed to chlorination and oxidation in the drinking water treatment process. Microorganisms can be found in raw water like rivers, lakes and groundwater. Some microorganisms may cause diseases in human and are called pathogens. These pathogens existing in water can be transmitted through a drinking water distribution system, causes water related diseases. The use of chlorine in the water treatment process was originally directed to the primary function of disinfection. Chlorination is one of the methods that can be used to make germ-free water. This method was first used over a hundred years ago, and is still it is continued. It is a chemical disinfection method that uses various types of chlorine or chlorine-containing substances for the oxidation and disinfection of what will be the potable water source. 1.11.2 Importance and benefits of chlorination of water Many investigations and studies have been carried out to make sure success in new treatment plants using chlorine as a cleaning agent. An important benefit of chlorination is that it has effective against viruses and bacteria. The three most common types of chlorinating agents used in water treatment are: Ca (OCl)2 (calcium hypochlorite), NaOCl (sodium hypochlorite), and Cl2 (chlorine) gas, Any type of chlorinating agent is added to water during the water treatment process will lead to form of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion (OCl), which are the main disinfecting species. Of the two disinfecting species, hypochlorous acid is the most effective. The amount of each compound present in the water is dependent on the pH level of the water. At lower pH levels, the hypochlorous acid will dominant. The quantity of chlorine that is required to disinfect water is depends on the impurities in the water. The amount of chlorine that is required to satisfy all the impurities is termed the ‘chlorine demand. Once the chlorine demand has been reached is called breakpoint chlorination i.e., the addition of chlorine to water until the chlorine demand has been fulfilled. After the breakpoint, any extra chlorine added will result in free chlorine residual, residual chlorine can react with a number of different contaminants present in raw water The main purpose of chlorination is to disinfect water, but it also has many other benefits. Unlike some of the other disinfection methods like ozonation and ultraviolet radiation, chlorination is able to provide a residual to reduce the chance of growing pathogens in water storage tanks or the water distribution system. 1.11.3 Types of chlorinating agents 1.11.3 .1 Chlorine Gas Chlorine gas is good disinfectant, but it is toxic to more than just waterborne pathogens; it is also toxic to humans. When chlorine gas (Cl2) is added to the water (H2O), it hydrolyzes rapidly to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and the hypochlorous acid will then dissociate into hypochlorite ions (OCl) and hydrogen ions (H+). Because hydrogen ions are produced, the water will become more acidic (the pH of the water will decrease). The amount of dissociation depends on the original pH of the water. If the pH of the water is below a 6.5, nearly no dissociation will occur and the hypochlorous acid will dominate. A pH above 8.5 will see a complete dissociation of chlorine, and hypochlorite ions will dominate. A pH between 6.5 and 8.5 will see both hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions present in the water. Together, the hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorite ions are referred to as free chlorine. Hypchlorous acid is the more effective disinfectant, and therefore, a lower pH is preferred for disinfection. 1.11.3.2 Calcium hypochlorite Calcium hypochlorite Ca (OCl) 2 is made up of the calcium salts of hypochlorous acid. When treating water, a lesser amount of calcium hypochlorite is needed than if using chlorine gas. When calcium hypochlorite is added to water, hypochlorite and calcium ions are produced. Instead of decreasing the pH like chlorine gas does, calcium hypochlorite increases the pH of the water. However, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite concentrations are still dependent on the pH of the water; therefore by decreasing the pH of the water, hypochlorous acid will still be present in the water. As a result, calcium hypochlorite and chlorine gas both produce the same type of residuals. 1.11.3 .3 Sodium hypochlorite Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is made up of the sodium salts of hypochlorous acid and is a chlorine-containing compound that can be used as a disinfectant. It is produced when chlorine gas is dissolved into a sodium hydroxide solution. It is in liquid form, clear with a light yellow color, and has a strong chlorine smell. Sodium hypochlorite is extremely corrosive and must be stored in a cool, dark, and dry place. Sodium hypochlorite will naturally decompose; therefore it cannot be stored for more than one month at a time. Of all the different types of chlorine available for use, this is the easiest to handle. Like calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite will also produce a hypochlorite ion, but instead of calcium ions, sodium ions are produced. NaOCl will also increase the pH of the water through the formation of hypochlorite ions. To obtain hypochlorous acid, which is a more effective disinfectant, the pH of the water should be decreased. In drinking water, the concentration of chlorine is usually very low and is thus not a concern in acute exposure. More of a concern is the long term risk of cancer due to chronic exposure to chlorinated water. Chlorination is a very conventional method of water disinfection that has been used from several years. It is efficient for destroying viruses and bacteria. 1.12 Aqueous chlorination chemistry In water treatment, gaseous chlorine Cl2 or hypochlorite are commonly used for chlorination processes. Chlorine gas (Cl2) hydrolyzes in water according to the following reaction: Fig.1.5. Relative distribution of main aqueous chlorine species as a function of pH at 25 ËÅ ¡C and for a chloride concentration Where k1 and k-1 values, calculated at  µ=0 M and 25ËÅ ¡C from Wang and Margerum, are 22.3 s-1 and 4.3Ãâ€"104 M-2 s-1, respectively. For temperatures between 0 and 25 1ËÅ ¡C, KCl2 ranges from 1.3Ãâ€"10-4 to 5.1Ãâ€"10-4 [[15]]. Hypochlorous acid resulting from reaction (1), is a weak acid which dissociates in aqueous solution: With KHOCl reported in literature between 1.5Ãâ€"10-8 (pKaHOCl,0ËÅ ¡C = 7.82) and 2.9Ãâ€"10-8 (pKaHOCl,25ËÅ ¡C= 7.54) for temperatures between 0 and 25 ËÅ ¡C [[16]]. Under typical water treatment conditions in the pH range 6–9, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite are the main chlorine species. Depending on the temperature and pH level, different distributions of aqueous chlorine species are observed. Fig. 1.6. Shows the distribution of HOCl and ClO as a function of the pH at 25ËÅ ¡C and for a chloride concentration of 5Ãâ€"10-3 M (177.5mgL-1). For these high chloride concentrations, Fig. 1 6. shows that Cl2 hydrolysis is almost complete at pH >4. Therefore, Cl2 can usually be neglected under typical drinking water treatment conditions [[17]]. References 1 [1]. P.C.Sharma, A. Jain and S. Jain, Fluoroquinolone antibacterial: a review on chemistry, Microbiology and therapeutic prospects, Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica-Drug Res, Vol. 66 , 2009, pp. 587-604. [2]. P.Wang, Y.L. He and C.H. Huang, Oxidation of fluoroquinolone antibiotics and structurally related amines by chlorine dioxide: Reaction kinetics, product and pathway, Eval. Water res. vol.4 4, 2010, pp.5989-5998. [3]. M.C. Dodd , A.Shah ,U. V.Gunten and C. H.Huang, â€Å" Interactions of Fluoroquinolone Antibacterial Agents with Aqueous Chlorine: Reaction -Kinetics, Mechanisms, and Transformation Pathways† Environ. Sci. Technol. Vol.39, 2005, pp. 7065-7076. [4]. S. D. Richardson and T. A. Ternes, Emerging contaminants and current issues,† â€Å"Water analysis, Analytical Chemistry, vol. 77(12), 2005, pp. 3807–3838. [5] .J. Gibs, P. E. Stackelberg, E. T. Furlong, M. Meyer, S. D. Zaugg, and R. L. Lippincott, â€Å"Persistence of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds in chlorinated drinking water as a function of time,† Science of the Total Environment, vol. 373(1), 2007 ,pp. 240–249. [6]. E.Rubinstein, History of quinolones and their side effects.† Chemotherapy 2001,47 (Suppl 3): 3 [7]. D.J. Diekema and R.N Jones. Oxazolidinone antibiotics. Lancet. 2001, 358 (9297):1975-82. Review. Pub Med PMID: 11747939. [8]. A.E. Barnhill, M.T. Brewer and S.A. Carlson. Adverse effects of antimicrobials via predictable or idiosyncratic inhibition of host mitochondrial components. Antimicrob. Agent. Chemother., 2012,Vol.56 (8):pp. 4046–4051. [9]. T C. Melton and S. D. Brown, Hindawi Publishing Corporation International Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, Vol. 2012, pp.1-6. [10] .S. H. Zinner, Antibiotic use: present and future, New microbiologica, Vol.30, 2007, pp. 321-325. [11] .H.C. Zhang, W. R. Chen and C.H. Huang Kinetic Modeling of Oxidation of Antibacterial Agents by Manganese Oxide, Environ. Sci. Tech., Vol. 42(15), 2008, pp. 5548–5554. [12]. S. D. Richardson and T. A. Ternes, â€Å"Water analysis: emerging contaminants and current issues,† Anal. Chem., Vol.77 (12), 2005, pp. 3807–3838. [13]. J. Gibs, P. E. Stackelberg, E. T. Furlong, M. Meyer, S. D. Zaugg, and R. L. Lippincott, â€Å"Persistence of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds in chlorinated drinking water as a function of time,† Sci. Tot. Environ. Vol. 373(1), 2007, pp. 240–249. [14]. Z. Li, H. Fenet, E. Gomez, and S. Chiron, â€Å"Transformation of the antiepileptic drug oxcarbazepine upon different water disinfection processes,† Water Res., Vol. 45(4), 2011, pp. 1587– 1596. [15]. T.X. Wang and D.W.Margerum,. Kinetics of reversible chlorine hydrolysis: temperature dependence and general-acid/ base-assisted mechanisms. Inorg. Chem. Vol.33, 1994, pp.1050–1055. [16]. J.C.Morris, The acid ionization constant of HOCl from 5 to 351. J. Phys. Chem. Vol.70, 1966, pp.3798–3805. [17]. M. Deborde, U.V. Gunten, Reactions of chlorine with inorganic and organic compounds during water treatment—Kinetics and mechanisms: A critical review, water res., Vol. 42, 2008, pp.13 – 51.