Corporate Identity Essay

Explained by Balmer and Soenen (1999). The International Corporate Identity Group (ICIG), therefore, came up with a statement of corporate identity, The Strathclyde Statement, to describe it. Please refer to Appendix B for the ICIG statement. A commonality between all attempts to define corporate identity, as well as, The Strathclyde Statement, indicates its characteristics which are concluded to be: 1. Collective. 2. Central. 3. Enduring. 4. Identifying of corporate. 5. Manageable. 6. Manifested by corporate-level strategy (vision and mission). 7. Affecting corporate image and affected by corporate image. Can be a source of competitive advantage. In spite all the variations in defining the concept, a clearer image of what corporate identity is emerges after studying its constructs and dimensions. This will be explored in the next section. Corporate identity: The structure What meant by structure is the components that constitute the corporate identity. Regardless of the difference i n categorizations, researchers have more in common when it comes to studying the construct of corporate identity than they had in its definition. Different views were offered of the construct of corporate identity. From a orporate communication paradigm, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) in (Balmer, 1998) have introduced corporate identity mix that focuses on the means by which corporate identity is communicated. Their mix includes corporate personality, behaviour, communication, and symbolism. Birkigt & Stadler mix has been given a good deal of attention by many authors (van Riel, 1995; Balmer, 1998; van Rekom, 1997). Communication is considered an important factor in shaping corporate identity, where it is stated that messages are communicated through behaviour of organization members (Balmer & van Riel, 1997). In 1995, Schmidt’s mix was introduced; it adds external environmental factors and also includes corporate culture to the corporate identity mix. It is composed of corporate culture, corporate behaviour, market condition and strategies, product and services, and communication ; design. Melewar ; Karaosmangolu (2006) suggest a â€Å"seven dimensions† construct for corporate identity that is very similar to Schmidt’s mix. These are corporate culture, corporate behaviour, and corporate communication, corporate structure, corporate strategy, corporate design, and industry identity. Balmer and Soenen (1999) have proposed a corporate identity mix that is composed of three of the human senses; these are soul, mind, and voice, see figure 1. The mind is the vision and philosophy, strategy, products and services, corporate performance, brand architecture, and corporate ownership, the soul consists of values, cultures, employee affinity, and internal images, and the voice consists of the corporate uncontrolled communication, controlled communication, symbolism, personnel and corporate behaviour, and indirect (external/ third party) communication. Figure [ 1 ] [ 1 ] Corporate Identity Mix – Adopted from [ (Balmer & Soenen, 1999)] Corporate culture Corporate culture was devoted proper attention since the early stages in expanding the corporate identity concept beyond the visual identity (Baker & Balmer, 1997; Hatch & Schultz, 1997; Stuart, 1999; Dowling, 1986; Markwick & Fill, 1997; Stuart, 1999; Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Culture epitomises the consensus within a company about how activities should be accomplished and is conceived as a result of a group’s shared experience and learning with respect to atters of external adaptation and internal integration† (Schein, 1985) in (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). It is therefore, represented in the shared values and beliefs among corporate members and also includes corporate philosophy, mission, and subcultures (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Baker & Balmer (1997) consider culture as the most important element in the corporate identity mix. However, in their explanation for corporate identity mix, Balmer & Soenen (1999) consider culture as a different concept from values but they place both of them in the Soul category in their organically inspired categorization. All researchers in the topic state that corporate culture is an important factor in influencing corporate identity. Dowling (1986) puts corporate culture on the same ontological level as corporate identity and argues that culture, identity, and image are related components of a system that defines organizations, while Markwick & Fill (1997) consider corporate culture as part of corporate personality, which directly influence the corporate identity. Bernstein (1984) considers corporate personality as the total characteristics that generate corporate identity. Abratt and Shee (1989) agree to the ame opinion and consider these characteristics as the totality of behavioural and intellectual characteristics of the corporate. Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) found that culture is usually communicated to stakeholders through employees’ behaviour. Therefore, culture can be considered as a context in which employees’ behaviour is formulated (Stuart, 1999). Corporate Behaviour Many commentators suggest that the actions of a corporation are a fundamental element of its identity (Balmer & van Riel, 1997; Hatch & Schultz, 1997; Kiriakidou & Millward, 2000; Topalian, 1984; Olins, 1995). While Balmer & Soenen (1998) consider behaviour as part of the voice in their categorization, Melewar & Jenkins (2002) gives more attention to the behaviour as described by â€Å"the body language†. Behaviour is one of the most important aspects in corporate identity since corporate identity is rooted in the behaviour of its members (Balmer & van Riel, 1997). This importance comes from the fact that behaviour can be an important media to communicate messages to different stakeholders (Melewar & Jenkins, 2002). Olins (1995) contends that everything that corporate does or ay communicates. Therefore, it is important to align employees’ behaviour totality or the corporate behaviour with the values, philosophies and communication to effectively contribute toward building the targeted identity. Van Rekom (1997) argues that actions that are deliberate are more important than spontaneous ones. Markwick & Fill (1997) argues that the visual cues can be misleading; they rely on other cues such as behaviour, communication, and values to understand corporate identity. It is important, then, to indicate that corporate behaviour has to e managed and aligned with the messages communicated by corporate to enforce its identity. Management behaviour is an important aspect of behaviour since the former are more exposed to stakeholders. Hatch and Schultz (1997) argue that identity and image are influenced by the management behaviour. Melewar & Jenkins (2002) argue that management behaviour should be consistent with the values and vision of the organization not to create confusion or communicate faulty messages. Van Rekom (1997) emphasizes the importance of centrality in corporate identity and suggests that employees’ efforts and behaviour should collaborate owards confirming the organization goals and objectives. Communication and design The purpose of creating a favourable corporate identity is to project a positive image to stakeholders and consequently a good reputation for the organization. Corporate identity has to be communicated in order to be able to take this advantage. Therefore, all communication media’s have to be aligned and coordinated in order to create a consistent corporate identity. Van Riel (1995) considers succession in communicating corporate identity as a factor to measure the effectiveness of corporate communication. Controlled Communication Ind (1992) describes corporate communications as the â€Å"process which translates corporate identity into image†. Where Ind include uncontrolled communication in his definition, van Riel (1995) distinguishes between controlled and uncontrolled communication in his definition of corporate communication as â€Å"an instrument of management by means of which all consciously used forms of internal and external communications are harmonized as effectively and efficiently as possible, so as to create a favourable basis for relationships upon which the company is dependent†. Controlled communication can be classified to include management communication, marketing communication, and organizational communication; which are controlled type of communication (van Riel, 1995). Management communication is vital in communicating the corporate objectives and goals to employees (Melewar & Jenkins, 2002). It is defined as an attempt to â€Å"communicate the vision and mission of the company in order to establish a favourable image and ultimately a good reputation amongst its internal and external stakeholders† (Olins, 1989). Marketing ommunication is generally associated with the 4Ps of product, price, place and promotion, and is aimed at supporting the sales of an organisation’s products or services. Marketing communication include, advertising, public relation activities and direct marketing. Van Riel (1995) puts organizational communication as the one with stakeholders that has an interdependent relationship with the organization; this includes internal and external stakeholders. Uncontrolled Communication Cornelissen (2000) contends that perceived corporate identity is formed by controlled and uncontrolled communication. Olins (1995) and Balmer (1995) agree on that everything the organization does or say communicates. Uncontrolled communication usually occurs by organization’s members dealing with external stakeholders (Moingeon & Ramanantsoa, 1997). It can be concluded that uncontrolled communication mainly occurs through behaviour; therefore, behaviour of corporate members should be aligned with corporate philosophies, values and strategies as mentioned earlier. Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) suggest that the corporate members’ commitment to the corporate values and goals will reduce the negative uncontrolled communication. A dynamic interrelationship between culture and communication (controlled and uncontrolled) can be concluded from the earlier argument. Corporate culture is usually communicated through employees’ behaviour (uncontrolled communication) (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Corporate Design Corporate design is consisted of the organisation’s name, slogan, logotype and symbol, colour and typography (Melewar & Saunders, 1998). Bernstein (1986) and Dowling (1986) consider the messages communicated through the symbol have more value than the symbol itself. Therefore, it is the communication done by the ymbol that makes the visual identity important to corporate identity. Melewar and Saunders (1998) attest on the importance of visual identity of corporation in influencing purchase decisions by consumers due to the rapid change in technology. The visual manifestation of corporate identity can communicate the corporate values and support the other forms of communication (Baker & Balmer, 1997). Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) also found that the slogan has powerful effect on stakeholders’ perceptions of the organizations. Structure Corporate structure is fundamental component of corporate identity (Olins, 1986; Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Brand structure Organizations develop branding strategies in order to distinguish itself from competitors (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Olins (1986) have introduced three different brand structures: 1 . Monolithic structure: in this structure, the corporate uses consistent design and name. 2. Endorsed structure: where the names and designs of the subsidiaries are associated with the parent corporate. 3. Branded structure: indicates that the design and name of the parent company is less exposed to customers and different products have separate brands. Organisational Structure Organizational structure refers to the hierarchy in the organization, lines of reporting and communication. The degree autonomy of the managers is determined by the degree of centralization within the organization’s structure. The more decentralize the structure is, the more autonomy managers have, (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006) which may lead to the emergence of new brand structure (Olins, 1986). Strategy All literature reviewed has made a link between corporate identity and strategy. There are different views on the relationship between corporate identity and trategy. The first view indicates that strategy provides a context to encapsulate corporate identity (Markwick & Fill, 1997; Stuart, 1999). The second view argues that as corporate identity encapsulates corporate values and mission and vision, it makes a reference point for the corporate strategy (Balmer & Greyser, 2009). He (2006) suggests a dynamic interrelationship between corporate identity and strategy which can be bidirectional. He (2006) suggests that corporate identity and strategy should have a big enough gap to allow change and enough alignment to maintain onsistency. Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) have highlighted two strategy types that are: Differentiation Strategy Differentiation strategy is the aspect of the corporate strategy that focus on the corporate strength and competitive advantage which is linked to the basic identity of the corporate (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Positioning strategy Positioning strategy which is, according to Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006), linked to the desired identity for the corporate. Corporate identity management Several models were introduced by academics to manage corporate identity. In the following sections, some of these models are described and analysed. Kennedy (1977) Kennedys model has focused on the creation of a positive corporate image (See Figure 2). She has realised the ability to influence corporate image through behavioural projections of the company. Kennedy has realised that based on the reality behaviour, or as per her wording â€Å"policies operating within the company’, an enduring and robust positive image can be obtained. In this model, Kennedy has acknowledged the importance of the effect of employees perception of the corporate n their behaviour and consequently on the projection of the corporate image to other stakeholders. In other parts of her article she declares the importance of employees in the process of company image formation. Also, there was no mentioning of visual identity of the corporate, as we know it is part of the corporate identity mix. Although her model hasn’t handled corporate identity in its new shape, her model was a starting point for several further models. Kennedys model main contribution was her awareness of the ability to influence corporate image based on corporate reality and behaviour. Figure [ 1 ] [2] Kennedy model for managing corporate image – Adopted from Stuart (1999) Dowling (1986) As seen in Figure 3, Dowling has elaborated on the role of communication in forming image of the corporate. Dowling considered that interpersonal communication represents the images of the firm held by these groups, and that mass media communication represents the company’s perception of itself. His argument is in contrast with the later literature reviewed which distinguishes between corporate identity, which communication is part of, and the corporate image that can be influenced by communication. Van Riel (1995) suggests that corporate communication should be consistent with corporate strategy, corporate identity, and corporate image. Figure [ 1 ] [3] Dowling model for managing corporate image – Adopted from Stuart (1999) In the conception of corporate culture, Dowling has dealt with culture as a determinant where he placed it at the same level with identity (Hatch & Schultz, 1997). However, Hatch and Schultz didn’t share the same opinion with Dowling where they have considered culture as a context of identity rather than being a determinant. Also Dowlings model were criticised for his underestimation of the role f management communication in influencing employees’ behaviour and internal images. Abratt (1989) Abratt’s model has introduced the concept of corporate personality. He argued that from the corporate personality, corporate philosophies can be developed, where the latter include values and culture of the corporate. The strategy was also included in the corporate personality in the model as showed in Figure 4. However, Abratt has defined corporate identity as â€Å"an assembly of visual clues-physical and behavioural by which an audience can recognise a company and distinguish it from others and hich can be used to represent or symbolise the company’ (Abratt & Shee, 1989).

American Renaissance

The American Renaissance period is widely acknowledged as the country's richest time in literature. It was during this years that legendary writers like Emerson, Thoreau, and Hawthorne lived and made their contributions. According to Woodlief (2001), calling the time between 1840-1865 a renaissance or rebirth is a misnomer because there was no rebirth of greatness in American literature or culture. This period was, in fact, the first era of maturity for American literature. For the first time, literary figures sought and established their marks in the world. Literary works of great value were published and influenced society.Writers of this time were struggling to establish the American identity as opposed to the British and other Europeans. They were looking for ways to realize their potentials in order to satisfy individual egos and rise above what they perceived as social concerns. The search for identity was deeper for it delves into the individual's place and role in society. Co nsidering the short period that American literature blossomed and flourished, one would wonder what brought on the sudden burst of literary enthusiasm. There are no distinct and clear-cut explanations for this, only speculations.Some believe that literature became popular because at this point, America was well established as an independent nation. The society was ready to indulge its senses as practical matters were settled. Publishers became available to print and distribute materials for a public that was ready to embrace new thoughts and expand its experience and knowledge. The societal structure, perhaps, also contributed to this golden age in literature. There were many clashing ideas and realities that gave rise to many American Renaissance 2 inspirations for writers.The society was also rich enough to afford patronizing writers, and a  new class emerged who sought cultural enrichment. American writers during the Renaissance struggled to be original and different from Europ e's acclaimed literary figures. Because of this desire to establish identity, the writers questioned and found wanting established norms. The questions and wonderings turned into a distinct style of writing that was exclusive to America. Literary writers of this time sought new roots that would require personal involvement in a meaningful level. They wanted to escape the cloying tendencies of tradition and the increasingly materialistic drive of their time.In a way, the renaissance writers could be considered rebels. They rebelled against restraints imposed by classic dogmas and traditions. Society and literary cultures were full of clashing moralities and ambiguousness that literary responses became expected and natural. In literature, the classic school advocated form more than the emotion or the senses, a practice that the Renaissance writers changed. In short, individualism was embodied in this period. American Renaissance writers' style of writing exhibited less restraint and f ewer adherences to traditional styles and forms. They wrote according to how they think they should.In their works, the writers were more focused on inspiration and emotion rather than following conventional styles. The American way of writing was centered on human nature and the person as an individual. From Emerson to Dickens, the individual was always encouraged to be the best he can be. Emotions and the reactions against realities in the society were also favorite subjects among writers. Writers also often talked of nature and how it was lost to industrialism and modernism. American Renaissance 3 The writers used literature to explore and discover the wonder of what had been lost to progress.They turned to nature for inspiration and ideas. Writers also wrote reactions and opinions about slavery and its abolishment. The writers even declared their independence from Britain. By doing so, the American writers showed that their writings were distinct and have their own brand. The wr iters during this time knew and influence each others' thoughts and works. They wrote and respond to each others' writings, but they would insist that each was an individualist. Literary forms included tales of slavery; novels whose themes were moralistic or political; poetry; and the transcendentalism began by Ralph Waldo Emerson.These writings affected society in great measures. Some dictated proper behavior for women and men. Some were intended to affect political issues and help fuel the movement for the abolition of slavery, Despite the public opinion opposing emancipation, writers supported and advocated for abolitionism. Many writings were also published to allow Americans to think back on their past in order to establish their individualism. To thoroughly understand the American Renaissance's style of writing and its characteristics, it is necessary to discuss some of the great ones who graced the era.Abolitionism Ralph Waldo Emerson was considered by many literary scholars as the proverbial match who sparked the literary creativity of his time. Many of his contemporary writers followed his doctrines and his influence remained long after he died. As an essayist, poet, and philosopher, he made the famous â€Å"The American Scholar† speech, which is deemed to be the formal declaration American Renaissance 4 of America's intellectual independence, presumably, this means the establishment of American literary writers as serious writers comparable to their peers in Europe.In his time, Emerson was the leader of the American Transcendentalist movement, which was a group of people who protested against the prevalence of materialism in the society. The members of this group embraced new literary, cultural, religious and philosophical ideas in rejection to societal norms and concerns. Among his many accomplishments, Emerson was notably known for his 1844 speech that described his thoughts and position regarding slavery in the country. This speech was the first time that Emerson admitted openly to the public that he was for abolition.The abolitionist movement in the United States was in full swing by the time of the American Renaissance. As such, it was often used as subject for literary discourse and debates. Emerson, one of the literary giants of the period, was one of its biggest supporters. In his speech, the writer spoke against slavery even if public opinion was against abolition. Before Emerson made his famous speech, Henry David Thoreau helped convinced people to attend and listen to the speech. Lockard (2004) said that Thoreau went door-to-door to ensure attendance.Emerson's public rhetoric traced the history of slavery and the horrors associated with it. In keeping with his advocacy for individualism and the sense of self, Emerson informed the public that he welcomed the participation of the African-Americans in political discourse and self-determination. His overall speech was centered on the emancipation of the slaves and welcoming them as equals in society. Emerson was criticized as a result of speech declaring his true position on slavery. But despite this setback, he did not lose his place as the foremost literary master of the time. American Renaissance 5 IndividualismIndividualism was the central theme of the American Renaissance. It embodied the concept that a person must and always question the conventions of society. The individual should challenge accepted intellectual, as well as religious, ideals. Individualism requires a person to govern his thoughts and actions based on his personal standards rather than the dictates of society. It encouraged freedom of expression and the rejection of conventional ideas in order to foster growth. As an ardent follower of Emerson, Henry David Thoreau followed his philosophies and applied them to his own writings and in his personal life.In relation to Emerson's doctrine on self-reliance, Thoreau expanded this thought and considered individual freedom as society's highest ideal. He explored individualism as a writer, a man, and as an intellectual. To do this, Thoreau left the society he knew and lived where he was in closer contact with the natural world. As an individual, Thoreau wanted to explore new aspects of his being and personality. By living along, he sought to discover a new self that was unencumbered by traditions and conventions. As an intellectual, he wanted to know how he would rebuild his life away from the established norms of a complex societal structure.As a writer, Thoreau experimented with different styles that reflected his individuality. His writings were the product of careful study. His essays were his experiences; his poetry and prose reflected a thorough attention to languages nuances. Thoreau got his inspiration from nature. Studying nature and getting inspired by it later became a traditional mark of individualism. Thoreau's focus on nature was his way of moving away from the traditions of a materialistic society. By moving away and living in a place far from the so-called civilized American Renaissance 6 society, Thoreau escaped and transcended the lures of the world.His voluntary exile and return to nature was also a form of sacrifice and self-renewal. By successfully turning to nature as his expression of individualism, Thoreau made his greatest legacy to the literary world. Human Nature and Morality Another person who was a part of Emerson's Transcendentalist movement was Nathaniel Hawthorne, who authored The Scarlet Letter. In his stories, he repeatedly expressed his views on human nature and morality. He explored the side of humanity that is normally hidden from society. Hawthorne used human psychology to explain morality issues and ambiguities.Hawthorne did not believe that man is all good. His themes involved the wickedness of the human nature and how this weakness resulted to conflicts in society. His Puritan upbringing was also evident in the way he portrayed sinners in a s trictly moral community. Hawthorne was a descendant of a Puritan New England family. In his exploration of human nature, Hawthorne questioned moral issues. Despite his background, he didn't believe in things like heaven or hell. Hawthorne's individualism could be seen through his use of modern ideas in his themes that opposed the conservatism of the nineteenth century literature.Hawthorne used symbolism to express topics that were considered too radical in his time, like adultery and sexual conduct. Despite his being secretive and shy, he successfully wrote about sexual and moral guilt with depth. He also challenged, through his writings, the scientist and reformers of the time who dared experiment with nature. Reactions to Hawthorne's brand of writing differ. Many thought his work to be sensitive, sentimental and pure. Still, there are those who think his works as too gloomy and moralistic.

Amino Acid Quantitative Analysis

Amino Acid Quantitative Analysis N.Koen Introduction Amino acids give the basic building blocks of forming a protein and play an essential role in the energy metabolism, neurotransmission, and lipid transport. Their quantitative analysis is important for various uses, including disease diagnostics and in elucidating nutritional influences on physiology (Fromm & Hargrove, 2012). Amino acid levels in the body fluids are used to diagnose metabolic deficiencies. Deprived or excessive levels of amino acids can show different defects of deficiencies (Lanpher, 2006). Preparation requirements and sample clean-up make the procedure a slow procedure. While some protocols may provide adequate chromatographic methods and derivatization procedures, that makes it more sufficient and quicker. Leucine is an essential amino acid, which means that it cannot be manufactured in the body. It is also well represented in all the proteins in the body. In vivo leucine kinetics presents a theoretically valid index of protein turnover. C onsequently, isotopically labelled (2H, 3H, 13C, 14C or 15N) leucine is most commonly used for the study of protein metabolism in humans and animals (Fromm & Hargrove, 2012). Literature review Amino acid involvement 1. Amino acid analysis Leucine is an amino acid which is usually obtained by hydrolysis of most common proteins. It was among the first of amino acids to be discovered in 1819 in muscle fibre and wool (Bauman, et al., 1992). Leucine is present in large proportions in haemoglobin. This amino acid is also known for preventing the breakdown of muscle proteins caused by injury or stress (Lanpher, 2006). In addition, Leucine may be beneficial for people suffering from phenylketonuria. Leucine is an essential amino acid, so your body cannot produce it naturally but can only obtain it from food, including protein-rich animal food like fish, chicken, beef, also dairy and eggs. Leucine is classified as a hydrophobic amino acid due to its aliphatic isobutyl side chain. It is encod ed by six codons (UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG) and is a major component of the subunits in ferritin, astacin and other ‘buffer’ proteins. 2. Inborn errors of the metabolism Branched-chain organic acidurias are inborn errors of the metabolism involving the branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) leucine, isoleucine and valine. These diseases usually involve neurological symptoms. They are treatable with strictly controlled diets and enhancement of detoxification of toxic intermediate metabolites. Detoxification is enhanced through supplementation of glycine, carnitine, biotin and other vitamins where applicable. The most common branched-chain organic acidurias are maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC), propionic aciduria (PCC), methylmalonic aciduria (MMA) and isovaleric aciduria (IVA) deficiency (Heidelberg, 2012). Leucine is involved in a few inborn errors of the metabolism, from which maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is one of the ma in mentioned. MSUD is caused by a deficiency in the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. (Lanpher, 2006) Ketoacidosis, neurological disorders, and developmental disturbance can all be induced by the accumulations of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) and branched-chain alpha-keto-acids (BCKAs) in patients with MSUD. According to clinical investigations on MSUD patients, leucine levels over 400ÃŽ ¼mol/L apparently can cause any clinical problem derived from impaired function of the central nervous system. Damage to neuronal cells found in MSUD patients are presumably because of higher concentrations of both blood BCAAs or BCKAs, especially alpha-keto-isocapronic acids. These clinical data from MSUD patients provide a valuable basis on understanding leucine toxicity in the normal subject. (Fromm & Hargrove, 2012)

Discovery of HIV Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Discovery of HIV - Research Paper Example Many people still do not understand the origin of HIV and the truth behind it. This paper, therefore, describes the discovery and origin of HIV, including how the scientific agreements and consensus-building are based on evidences and logics. Diagram: How HIV Invade T-Cell Retrieved from: http://www.nature.com/nri/journal/v8/n6/fig_tab/nri2302_F4.html The history of HIV discovery began in late 1970s, when many people believed that epidemic diseases caused by microbes and viruses were never a threat to developed and industrialized countries. In addition, many people also believed that viruses never caused cancer, and nothing existed as retrovirus, which infected humans (Barre-Sinoussi, 2010). These beliefs, however, were successfully approved by scientist researchers, since the attempts to find retroviruses in cancer and other diseases in human beings all ended up in vain. Most retrovirus researchers also turned their work to study oncogenes (Gallo & Montagnier, 2003). The establishme nt of HIV and AIDS began with the identification of human T-cell leukemia virus types 1 and 2 (HTLV-1 and HTLV-2). These viruses were established to cause the abnormal T-cell leukemia. The other contributor to the discovery of HIV and AIDS is the process for growing T lymphocytes in culture for a period that is enough to allow development of putative latent retrovirus (Marlin & Ed, 2011). This research study helped in the separation of T-cell growth factor in Bethesda, Maryland. In Paris, it was demonstrated that interferon can suppress the production of retroviruses in mouse cell. This idea led to the use of anti-interferon serum in the search for human retroviruses (Levy, 1993). Francoise Barre-Sinoussi Francoise Barre-Sinoussi is a young retroviriologist working at the institute Pasteur in Paris. One year earlier, a cluster of Pneumocystis carinii (p jirovecii) causing pneumonia infection had been established among gay men in Los Angeles, USA. This paved way for research and disc overy of global AIDS epidemic (Barre-Sinoussi, 2010). Barre-Sinoussi’s began her research work together with Willy Rozenbaum. They focused their research in patients who had not developed AIDS; since they discovered that infected patients lacked CD4 cells if at all the causative agent was attacked T lymphocytes. Barre-Sinoussi, along side other researchers from institute Pasteur, began their work by growing cells from a biopsy that was obtained from a patient. These cells were obtained from a cell culture in the presence of interleukin 2, initially known as T-cell growth factor (Barre-Sinoussi, 2010). They were focused to obtain a retrovirus, and during that period, HTLV-1 was the recognized model of human retrovirus. These researchers, however, did not assume that the virus had the same characteristics as HTLV-1. After two weeks, they realized a reverse transcriptase activity in the culture. Instead of the virus immortalizing other cells, they were found dead. In order to sa ve the virus, they asked for a new sample and quickly added lymphocytes from the culture (Barre-Sinoussi, 2010). Again, they noticed a reversed transcriptase activity in the new sample. Over the following years, tests were developed, the virus characterized, and confirmatory discoveries made. The research community then named this virus as HIV. After the initial discoveries, Barre-Sinoussi still continued with her research work focusing primarily on the

E-mail as way of communication in business Essay

E-mail as way of communication in business - Essay Example The paper tells that email is a way of transferring digitised information from the source to one or more recipients using a web enabled device. It requires that the two parties have access to the internet to make the exchange complete; its servers receives information from the sender, directs it to the recipient and stores the content to be accessed at will thereafter. With improvements in computer technology, traditional forms of communications shifted from physical print outs for instance, memos to modern digitised forms which include internal email. This is used by businesses and organisations for communicating with its employees. This form of communication has brought with it some challenges which were only realised after corporations realised that there was minimal control over information exchanged among employees and the outside environment. Despite compliance standards set by corporations to guide employees on the right email content to use for internal communications, the nu mber of emails exchanged in a day is so many that internal control mechanisms cannot effectively handle. In 2008, about 103 billion emails were sent in corporate companies the world over. These are some of the problems associated with internal mail. Phones 4u is a large mobile phone retailer based in Britain, since its inception in 1987 by John Caudwell and his brother Brian, the store has grown leaps and bounds to boast of 550 outlets in the United Kingdom. This company operates in a tough business environment and transformed its internal processes over time, to cope with increasing consumer needs. Britain’s communications regulator (Ofcom) found Phones 4u liable of various malpractices ranging from lying to clients about their coverage, and delay in refund processing to those who purchase faulty phones. Due to such damaging allegations, the store did an internal check to determine the root cause of these inefficiencies and address them. Among the resolutions was rejection o f internal email as a communication medium within and outside the company to monitor information flow to protect its brand from lurid accusations that were threatening its existence. Along with other changes effected for instance, provision of insurance packages for Smartphone buyers to reduce costs associated with customer returning damaged phones that are within the warranty period, it performance has rebounded with turnover growing 22% in 2010. Disadvantages of using internal email Liability: Unmonitored use of email can lead to consequences relating to violations of internal corporate rules and government regulations. Companies have internal intelligence and secrets that they may want to be kept private within its boundaries, they however, do not have the capacity to shield employees from knowing the same. Other modes of communication can be monitored to gauge its compliance; however, information contained in email is drafted by the sender, who decides on the context. The copy s ent to the recipient can however be retrieved by investigators at the request of the authorities if it results in a civil lawsuit. The aims of corporate compliance is: to protect employees from unwanted behaviour, protecting company’s assets from misuse due to inefficiencies, minimise corporate risk and streamline operational processes to increase output. This secretive nature of email message exchange makes employees be tempted to use the medium to exchange private, but damaging information to other people for whatever gain. For instance, an employee might leak a product diversification plan by his company, the competitor who requested for the intelligence then wards off competition by introducing his own version of the same, with the same formula, to sabotage the originator (Smith & Mounter, 2008, p. 127)2. The government engages with corporate bodies on a daily basis, these businesses might hide some information from the government especially on matters relating to financi al position. For

The point of making people and organizations more accountable Essay

The point of making people and organizations more accountable - Essay Example This is because there are the stakeholders who need current information on the status of their concerns. For example, in an international session that looked at accountability across all sectors involved in HIV, including community, government and UN, a reporter reported that - The movement is now fragmented. There are some new voices but it's not representative of everyone. And ever since treatment became accessible, the sense of urgency is lost. Many activists who were fighting for their lives have now gone on medication and gone back to having full time jobs (Narayanan, 2006). One strong point of making people and organizations more accountable is that people's ability to realise their rights to resources have increased (Newell &Wheeler, 2006b). Accordingly more responsive institutions enable people to gain access to resources, equipping them with legal frameworks, citizen engagements, understanding of accountability, and state-market relations. Citizens are taught a range of informal and formal strategies to demand accountability, too. Another reason in making people and organizations more accountable is to fight the perception that the organization is illegitimate. Therefore, organizations, especially those international in scope, need to increase transparency, improve accountability, and think harder about norms for global governance (Nye, 2001). By increasing visibility, criticism may be minified (Lloyd & de Las Casas, 2005). It cannot also be discounted that some organizations are speaking up on behalf of marginalized communities and have facilitated the participation of these communities in such matters as HIV/AIDS response (Code of Good Practice, 2004). There are questions then about the quality and accountability of programmes being delivered by some organizations. NGOs are said to have lacked resources, technical skills or experience, and this has implications for the quality of programming, monitoring and evaluation of these programmes (Code of Good Practice, 2004). The truth is that not everyone benefits equally from programmes so that attention has to be given to issues of intra-community accountability, adequate channels of representation, and new mechanisms for inclusion and participation (Newell & Wheeler, 2006b). This sense of community as a reason for accountability was also emphasized by Johnsson (1996). Another is that while markets have bonded people together, environmental, social, and political interdependence have also increased (Nye, 2001). There is concern that humanitarian agencies have no accepted body of professional standards to guide their work, especially when new ones are coming into the humanitarian sector. A truism is that whether experienced or newly-created, humanitarian assistance agencies could make mistakes, be misguided or sometimes misuse the trust placed in them (Borton, 1994). Moreover, any allocation of resources needs guidance (Code of Good Practice, 2004). There is also the need for donors to be more accountable to those they aim to support and those they press to reform (Newell & Wheeler, 2006b). History is replete with peoples' fight from developing countries with country borrowings with the World Bank and IMF. Indeed, rational behaviour (Olson et al, 1998) is one point of making

USGAAP and iGAAP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

USGAAP and iGAAP - Essay Example There is a similarity between both the US GAAP and iGAAP, regarding the treatment of the impairment of assets that are held for disposal (Ochoa, 2010). Under both accounting methods, the impairment of the assets that is held for disposal is to be treated as the difference between the assets carrying amount, and the assets fair value. This difference becomes the amount of the loss of value of the asset, which is to be treated as expenditure. The other similarity in the treatment of intangible assets; is in the treatment of intangible assets acquired through business combination, especially when such intangible assets can be treated as different from the goodwill. The differentiation in such assets exists, if such assets can be transferred, licensed, rented, or exchanged (McClenahen & Jusko, 2002). Under both the US GAAP and iGAAP, such asset should be treated as normal business assets. There is a major disparity in the treatment of expenditure in research and development, under both the US GAAP and iGAAP. The US GAAP requires that all the expenditure that is incurred in the generation of internal intangibles to be factored in, as expenditure (Crovitz, 2008). Therefore, any costs involved in research and development is to be treated as expenditure, under US GAAP. However, the case is different under the iGAAP, which provides that there should be a distinction between the research expenses and the development expenses. The argument is that, the cost incurred in research has no certainty of generating future economic value, and thus it should be treated as expenditure (McClenahen & Jusko, 2002). On the other hand, all the costs incurred in development, which could lead to the generation of future income benefits, such as the development of brand value, should be treated as capital expenditure, and thus placed under capital (Ochoa, 2010). While both US GAAP and iGAAP treat the assets acquired

Can the Government Stabilize the Economy (3 sections) Research Proposal

Can the Government Stabilize the Economy (3 sections) - Research Proposal Example . Such scarcity, whether natural or man-made, makes it necessary for everyone to stretch whatever limited resources he has. Resources can be financial or physical. Practically every one has to make hard choices, to make trade-offs as between one good or service and another. A decision to have one or more of one thing means that one will have less of something else. The relevant cost of any decision is its opportunity cost- the value of the next best alternative one has to give up. Economists stress that one must always calculate the opportunity cost of any specific choice. It would be an ideal situation if a policy maker had all the resources with which to grow the national economy. Scarcity is not the basic premise of growing an economy but rather the availability and the optimal utilization of resources. A country such as the United States has considerable amount and diversity of resources such that it can become self-sufficient; however, less naturally endowed countries would have to grapple with dire scarcity to some degree and will have to procure resources other countries. In a particular case where a country has to consider only what resources it has within its national borders, it will have to make choices about how to use them to maximize or optimize production. In a simplified production possibility frontier (PPF) model where a country has limited resources and a given technology and has only two outputs from a fixed supply of inputs, the decision maker has to make decision about the various combinations of the two outputs, such as wheat and soybeans, or foodstuff and computers. The production of food alone and none of computers will likely not use the resources available in an optimal way. The ideal combination might lie between the two extremes where a certain proportion of resources are employed for the production of food and computers jointly. The concept of the production possibilities frontier comes to our mind – it shows the

A Critical Review in the Contemporary Themes in Youth Work Practice, Essay - 2

A Critical Review in the Contemporary Themes in Youth Work Practice, Thematic Area Mental Health and Emotional Wellbeing - Essay Example Mental health and emotional well-being is a journal because it is possible to incorporate videos and supplementary materials. Presentation of the journal is via a modified PDF version of full text and presented in full digital version of science. There is a modified abstract in the print version. The journal is illustrates findings of scientific research with supporting evidence. This makes it different from other articles that generally describe a topic with an introduction. The journal is has findings for enlightening the scientific community. Mental health journal presents facts as opposed to articles that give opinion and are summary for existing articles (Brendtro, 2009 Pg7). The authors believe that developing children are complex since they undergo many dynamic processes both internal and external (Brendtro, 2009 Pg7). These processes must work together to shape and create a child. It is the understanding of the author that each individual is unique through strength and vulnerability. There are situations where vulnerabilities are deep to an extent where an individual does not engage with others or appreciate the fullness of life. Most scholars believe that the extent of full potential of a human being is determined by the opportunities and challenges he encounters. The author believes that extreme cases such as maltreatment, violence and chaos might result to emotional, behavior and psychological troubles. These problems have affected individual and the society thus millions of dollars are used in succumbing these problems. A lot of time is wasted in taking care of maltreated children because they are fragile. The authors acknowledge that policies and programs are ineffective even though lots of money and time has been invented. Many children fear childhood trauma and this makes only a fraction of their full potential to be identified (Dobson, & Perry, 2010 Pg 25). Problems that children experience during their childhood